Bubble sort is a simple sorting

algorithm. It works by repeatedly

stepping through the list to be sorted,
comparing two items at a time and
swapping them if they are in the
wrong order. The pass through the list
is repeated until no swaps are
needed, which indicates that the list is
sorted. The algorithm gets its name
from the way smaller elements
"bubble" to the top of the list.
Because it only uses comparisons to

Selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm

that improves on the performance of bubble
sort. It works by first finding the smallest
element using a linear scan and swapping it into
the first position in the list, then finding the
second smallest element by scanning the
remaining elements, and so on. Selection sort is
unique compared to almost any other algorithm
in that its running time is not affected by the
prior ordering of the list: it performs the same
number of operations because of its simple
structure. Selection sort requires (n - 1) swaps
and hence (n) memory writes. However,
Selection sort requires (n - 1) + (n - 2) + ... + 2
+ 1 = n(n - 1) / 2 = (n2) comparisons. Thus it
can be very attractive if writes are the most

Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that

is relatively efficient for small lists and mostlysorted lists, and often is used as part of more
sophisticated algorithms. It works by taking
elements from the list one by one and inserting
them in their correct position into a new sorted
list. In arrays, the new list and the remaining
elements can share the array's space, but
insertion is expensive, requiring shifting all
following elements over by one. The insertion
sort works just like its name suggests - it inserts
each item into its proper place in the final list.
The simplest implementation of this requires two
list structures - the source list and the list into
which sorted items are inserted. To save
memory, most implementations use an in-place

A binary search algorithm (or binary

chop) is a technique for finding a particular
value in a sorted list. It makes progressively
better guesses, and closes in on the sought
value by selecting the median element in a
list, comparing its value to the target value,
and determining if the selected value is
greater than, less than, or equal to the
target value. A guess that turns out to be too
high becomes the new top of the list, and a
guess that is too low becomes the new
bottom of the list. Pursuing this strategy
iteratively, it narrows the search by a factor
of two each time, and finds the target value.

Object-oriented programming
(OOP) is a programming paradigm
that uses "objects" and their
interactions to design applications and
computer programs. It is based on
several techniques, including
encapsulation, modularity,
polymorphism, and inheritance. It was
not commonly used in mainstream
software application development until
the early 1990s. Many modern
programming languages now
support OOP

Continuous function is a function for

which, intuitively, small changes in the input
result in small changes in the output.
Otherwise, a function is said to be
discontinuous. A continuous function with a
continuous inverse function is called
bicontinuous. An intuitive though imprecise
(and inexact) idea of continuity is given by
the common statement that a continuous
function is a function whose graph can be
drawn without lifting the chalk from the
blackboard. if M(t) denotes the amount of
money in a bank account at time t, then the
function jumps whenever money is
deposited or withdrawn, so the function M(t)

Isotopes are any of the different

forms of an element each having
different atomic
mass (mass number). Isotopes of
an element have nuclei with the
same number of protons (the same
atomic number) but different
numbers of neutrons. Therefore,
isotopes have different mass
numbers, which give the total
number of nucleonsthe number
of protons plus neutrons. (Uranium-

LASER is an acronym for Light

Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
A typical laser emits light in a narrow,
low-divergence monochromatic (single
coloured, if the laser is operating in
the visible spectrum), beam with a
well-defined wavelength. In this way,
laser light is in contrast to a light
source such as the incandescent light
bulb, which emits light over a wide
area and over a wide spectrum
of wavelengths.

Zeroth law of
thermodynamics If two
thermodynamic systems are in
thermal
equilibrium with a third, they
are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
First law of
thermodynamics for a
thermodynamic cycle the sum

Second law of thermodynamics is an

expression of the universal law of increasing
entropy, stating that the entropy of an
isolated system which is not in equilibrium will
tend to increase over time, approaching a
maximum value at equilibrium. (In an isolated
system, a process can occur only if it
increases the total entropy of the
system.)
Third law of thermodynamics As a system
approaches absolute zero, all processes cease
and the entropy of the system approaches a
minimum value. It can be concluded
as 'If T=0K, then S=0' where T is the
temperature of a closed system and S is the

Newton's laws of motion

First law: law of inertia "An object will stay at
rest or continue at a constant velocity unless
acted upon by an external unbalanced force".
Second law: the net force on a particle is
proportional to the time rate of change of its
linear momentum: F = d[mv] / dt. Momentum
is the product of mass and velocity. When the
mass is constant, this law is often stated as F
= ma (the net force on an object is equal to
the mass of the object multiplied by its
acceleration).
Third law: "Every action has an equal and

Calorie is a unit heat: the

amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a gram of
water by 1 C (from 14.5 C to
15.5 C)
One joule is the work done, or
energy expended, by a force of
one newton moving one meter
along the direction of the force.
This quantity is also denoted as a

Cache Memory: A CPU cache is a

cache used by the central
processing unit of a
computer to reduce the average
time to access memory. The cache
is a smaller, faster memory which
stores copies of the data from the
most frequently used main
memory locations. As long as most
memory accesses are to cached
memory locations, the average

What do you mean by

engineering?
Most simply, the art of directing
the great sources of power in
nature for the use and the
convenience of people.
The application of scientific and
mathematical principles to
practical ends such as the design,
manufacture, and operation of
efficient and economical
structures, machines, processes,

What do you mean by

telecommunication
The science and technology of
communication at a distance by
electronic Transmission
What is electronics?
elctron+dynamics is electronics,
means this is a study of the
behaviour(dynamic) of electrons
in semi conductors.

What is
electrical?
Any thing Related
to or associated
with electricity

What is the difference between the terms

Electrical and Electronics?
Electrical relates to the development and delivery of the
electrical energy to the various devices that perform
specific functions in a given environment. Example: The
alternator in your car that series of wires delivers
electrical power / energy to various components (radio,
the computer that monitors / controls operation of the
engine) in
today's cars.
Where as "Electronics" relates more to the complex
functions performed within a given device, more often
now days by circuits comprised of many micro electronic
sub components that make up the structure of a single
micro electronic component. Example: a typical CPU chip
would / could contain thousands of individual transistor
circuits within a device no bigger that the size of your
small

AC motor
An AC motor consists of two basic parts:
* An outside stationary stator having coils supplied
with AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field,
and;
* An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is
given a torque by the rotating
field. There are two types of AC motors, depending
on the type of rotor used:
* The synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at
the supply frequency or a submultiple of the supply
frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either
due to current transported with slip rings or a
permanent magnet.
* The induction motor, which turns slightly slower
than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the
rotor of this motor is created by an induced current.

DC Motor

When a current passes through the coil

wound around a soft iron core, the side
of the
positive pole is acted upon by an
upwards force, while the other side is
acted upon by a downward force.
According to Fleming's left hand rule,
the forces cause a turning effect on the
coil, making it rotate. To make the motor
rotate in a constant direction, "direct
current" commutators make the current
reverse in direction every half a cycle

Kirchhoff's Current Law

(KCL):At any point in an
electrical circuit where charge
density is not changing in time,
the sum of currents flowing
towards that point is
equal to the sum of currents
flowing away from that point.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
(KVL):The directed sum of the
electrical potential

Ohm's law states that in an

electrical circuit, the current
passing through a conductor
between two points is directly
proportional to the potential
difference (i.e. voltage drop or
voltage) across the two
points, and the constant of
proportionality is known as
resistance

Why is ac transmission preferred over dc

transmission?
Direct current (DC) is not in use in any power
grid globally. This is because DC is too
expensive to deliver over long distances. DC
drops in power over distance, hence not
suitable for power grids.
Alternating current (AC) on the other hand is
very efficient for long distances and does not
drop in power like the way DC does. Also, you
can step up or step down the voltage with AC
current which you can't really do so with DC
and its naturally produced by generators

So why is DC used?
Its easy to produce at
small levels using
batteries, thus
preferable in small
devices.
Also all digital circuits

Transistor: Transistor. This is an

abbreviated combination of the words
"transconductance" or "transfer", and
"varistor". A transistor is a semiconductor
device, commonly used to amplify or switch
electronic signals. Modern transistors are
divided into two main categories: bipolar
junction transistors (BJTs) and field effect
transistors (FETs). Application of current in
BJTs and voltage in FETs between the input
and common terminals increases the
conductivity between the common and
output terminals, thereby controlling current
flow between them. The transistor
characteristics depend on their type

Doping refers to the

process of intentionally
introducing impurities
into an extremely
pure (also referred to as
intrinsic) semiconductor
in order to change its
electrical

What is power electronics?

Power electronics is the
technology associated with the
efficient conversion, control
and conditioning of electric
power by static means from its
available input form into the
desired electrical output form.(
modify voltage, current or
frequency)

What is modulation?
modulation is the process of
varying a periodic waveform, in
order to use that signal to convey a
message. Normally a highfrequency sinusoid waveform is
used as carrier signal. The three
key parameters of a sine wave are
its amplitude ("volume"), its phase
("timing") and its frequency
("pitch"), all of which can be
modified in accordance with a low

What is a Cyclotron?
A cyclotron is a type of particle
accelerator. Cyclotrons
accelerate charged particles
using a high-frequency,
alternating voltage (potential
difference). A perpendicular
magnetic field causes the
particles to spiral almost in a
circle so that they re-encounter

control system is a
device or set of
devices to manage,
command, direct or
regulate the
behaviour of other
devices or systems.

Microprocessor: A device that integrates

the functions of the central processing unit
(CPU) of a computer onto one
semiconductor chip or integrated circuit
(IC). In essence, the microprocessor
contains the core elements of a computer
system, its computation and control engine.
Only a power supply, memory, peripheral
interface ICs, and peripherals (typically
input/output and storage devices) need be
added to
build a complete computer system. A
microprocessor consists of multiple internal
function units. A basic design has an
arithmetic logic unit, a control unit, a

Microcontroller (also MCU or C) is a

computer-on-a-chip. It is a type of
microprocessor emphasizing high
integration, low power consumption, self
sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in
contrast to a general-purpose
microprocessor (the kind used in a PC). In
addition to the usual arithmetic and logic
elements of a general purpose
microprocessor, the microcontroller
typically integrates additional elements
such as read-write memory for data
storage, read-only memory, such as flash
for code storage, EEPROM for permanent

Digital electronics are

electronics systems that use
digital signals. Digital
electronics are representations
of Boolean algebra and are used
in computers, mobile phones,
and other consumer products.
Digital electronics or any digital
circuit are usually made
from large assemblies of logic

Multiplexing: Transmitting
multiple signals over a single
communications line or
computer channel. The two
common multiplexing
techniques are FDM, which
separates signals by
modulating the data onto
different carrier frequencies,
and TDM, which separates

Logic gate performs a logical

operation on one or more logic
inputs and produces a
single logic output. Because the
output is also a logic-level value,
an output of one
logic gate can connect to the input
of one or more other logic gates.
The logic
normally performed is Boolean
logic and is most commonly found

Fanout is a measure of the ability of

a logic gate output, implemented
electronically,
to drive a number of inputs of other
logic gates of the same type. In most
designs,
logic gates are connected together to
form more complex circuits, and it is
common
for one logic gate output to be
connected to several logic gate
inputs. The technology
used to implement logic gates

NAND operation: is a logical

operation on two logical values, that
produces a value of false if and only if
both of its operands are true. In other
words, it produces a value of true if and
only if at least one of its operands is
false. It is one of the two sole sufficient
operators or functionally complete
binary operators which can be used to
express all of the boolean functions of
propositional logic. This property makes
the NAND gate crucial to modern digital
electronics, including its use in NAND

NOR Gate: A HIGH output (1)

results if both the inputs to the
gate are LOW (0). If
one or both input is HIGH (1), a
LOW output (0) results. NOR is the
result of the
negation of the OR operator, thus
forming a complete operation the
combination of
which can be combined to
generate any other logical

XOR Gate: A HIGH output (1)

results if one, and only one, of
the inputs to the gate is HIGH
(1). If both inputs are LOW (0)
or both are HIGH (1), a LOW
output (0) results. This function
is addition modulo 2. As a
result, XOR gates are used to
implement binary addition in
computers. A half adder

FLIP FLOP :is a kind of bistable

multivibrator, an electronic circuit
which has two stable states and
thereby is capable of serving as one bit
of memory. Today, the term flip-flop has
come to generally denote nontransparent (clocked or edge-triggered)
devices, while the simpler transparent
ones are often referred to as latches. A
flip-flop is controlled by (usually) one or
two control signals and/or a gate or
clock signal. The output often includes
the complement as well as the normal

Race condition or race hazard

is a flaw in a system or process
whereby the output
and/or result of the process is
unexpectedly and critically
dependent on the sequence or
timing of other events. The term
originates with the idea of two
signals racing each other to
influence the output first. Avoided
using master slave flip flops or

Master Slave Flip Flop:

consists of two JK flip flop
connected in series. The
clocks to the two are mutually
inverted and the feedback of
output that comes back to the
input comes from the output
of the second FF to the input
of first

What is the difference between

conductors and insulators?
Current is the rate of flow of charges. More free
electron means more current in conductor.
Conductor means element that allows electrons
to follow through them easily. Insulator means
element that does not allow electrons to flow at
all. Conductor like copper atom; has free
electrons that flow easily within the conductor.
On the other hand insulators like rubber; does
not have any free electrons. That's why
insulators are poor conductor of electricity.
Dielectrics are also insulators but they have a
dipole structure, because of which they do not
conduct electricity but when placed in an

Interrupt is an asynchronous signal from

hardware indicating the need for attention
or a synchronous event in software
indicating the need for a change in
execution. A hardware interrupt causes the
processor to save its state of execution via
a context switch, and begin execution of
an interrupt handler. Software interrupts
are usually implemented as instructions in
the instruction set, which cause a context
switch to an interrupt handler similar to a
hardware interrupt. Interrupts are a
commonly used technique for computer
multitasking, especially in real-time

Read-only memory (ROM) is a

class of storage media used in
computers and other
electronic devices. Data stored in
ROM cannot be modified. Modern
types such as
EPROM and flash EEPROM can be
erased and re-programmed
multiple times; they
are still described as "read-only
memory" because the
reprogramming process is
generally infrequent, comparatively

Programmable read-only
memory (PROM), or one-time
programmable ROM (OTP), can
be written to or programmed
via a special device called a
PROM programmer. Typically,
this device uses high voltages
to permanently destroy or
create internal links (fuses or
antifuses) within the chip.

Erasable programmable read-only

memory (EPROM) can be erased by
exposure to strong ultraviolet light
(typically for 10 minutes or longer), then
rewritten with a process that again
requires application of higher than usual
voltage. Repeated
exposure to UV light will eventually wear
out an EPROM, but the endurance of most
EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of
erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip
packages can often be identified by the
prominent quartz "window" which allows
UV light to enter. After programming, the

Electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory
(EEPROM) is based on a similar
semiconductor structure to EPROM,
but allows its entire contents (or
selected banks) to be electrically
erased, then rewritten electrically, so
that they need not be removed from
the computer (or camera, MP3 player,
etc.). Writing or flashing an EEPROM is
much slower (milliseconds per bit)
than reading from a ROM or writing to
a RAM (nanoseconds in both cases).

Random access memory (RAM)

is a type of computer data storage.
Today it takes
the form of integrated circuits that
allow the stored data to be
accessed in any order,
i.e. at random. The word random
thus refers to the fact that any
piece of data can be
returned in a constant time,
regardless of its physical location

What is the difference between ic

and pcb?
An integrated circuit (IC) is an
electronic circuit miniaturized to fit on
a small piece of semiconductor
material such as silicon. This piece of
silicon is encased inside a hermetically
sealed plastic, metal, or ceramic
package that prevents it being
damaged from dust, moisture, and
contact with other objects. The
package also serves to allow easier
connections to a printed circuit board

The purpose of a PCB is to connect

ICs and discreet components
together to form larger operational
circuits. PCBs may also allow parts
to be mounted to them such as
card sockets. They are sometimes
used as heat sinks for components
that generate heat. This is done by
making a large copper area then
mating the component to the PCB
so that it touches the copper area

Multivibrator is an electronic
circuit used to implement a
variety of simple two-state
systems such as oscillators,
timers and flip-flops. The most
common form is the a stable or
oscillating type, which
generates a square wave - the
high level of harmonics in its
output is what gives the

A utility program called an assembler is

used to translate assembly language
statements into the target computer's
machine code. The assembler performs a
more or less isomorphic translation (a
one-to-one mapping) from mnemonic
statements into machine instructions and
data. (This is in contrast with high-level
languages, in which a single statement
generally results in many machine
instructions. A compiler, analogous to an
assembler, is used to translate high-level
language statements into machine code;
or an interpreter executes statements

Assembly language is a low-level

language for programming computers.
It implements a symbolic representation
of the numeric machine codes and
other constants needed to program a
particular CPU architecture. This
representation is usually defined by the
hardware manufacturer, and is based
on abbreviations (called mnemonics)
that help the programmer remember
individual instructions, registers, etc. An
assembly language is thus specific to a
certain physical or virtual computer

A high-level programming language is a

programming language that, in comparison to
low-level programming languages, may be more
abstract, easier to use, or more portable across
platforms. Such languages often abstract away
CPU operations such as memory access models
and management of scope. "high-level language"
refers to the higher level of abstraction from
machine language. Rather than dealing with
registers, memory addresses and call stacks,
high-level languages deal with variables, arrays
and complex arithmetic or boolean expressions. In
addition, they have no opcodes that can directly
compile the language into machine code, unlike
low-level languages like assembly language.
Other features such as string handling routines,
object-oriented language features and file

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a

communications protocol for the transfer of
information on intranets and the World Wide
Web. Its original purpose was to
provide a way to publish and retrieve
hypertext pages over the Internet. HTTP is a
request/response standard between a client
and a server. A client is the end-user, the
server is the web site. The client making an
HTTP request - using a web browser, spider,
or other end-user tool - is referred to as the
user agent. The responding server - which
stores or creates resources such as HTML files
and images - is called the origin server. In
between the user agent and origin server

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a

network protocol used to transfer data
from one
computer to another through a
network, such as over the Internet. FTP
is a commonly used protocol for
exchanging files over any TCP/IP based
network to manipulate files on another
computer on that network regardless of
which operating systems are involved
(if the computers permit FTP access).
There are many existing FTP client and
server programs. FTP servers can be

Global System for Mobile

communications (GSM: originally from
Groupe Spcial Mobile) is the most popular
standard for mobile phones in the world. Its
promoter, the GSM Association, estimates
that 82% of the global mobile market uses
the standard. GSM differs from its
predecessors in that both signalling and
speech channels are digital call quality, and
thus is considered a second generation (2G)
mobile phone system. This has also meant
that data communication was easy to build
into the system. GSM also pioneered a lowcost alternative to voice calls, the Short
message service (SMS, also called "text

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is

a channel access method utilized by various
radio communication technologies. It should not
be confused with cdma One (often referred to as
simply "CDMA"), which is a mobile phone
standard that uses CDMA as its underlying
channel access method. CDMA employs spreadspectrum technology and a special coding
scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a
code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed
over the same physical channel. By contrast,
time division multiple access (TDMA) divides
access by time, while frequency division
multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency.
CDMA is a form of "spread-spectrum" signalling,
since the modulated coded signal has a much

3G is the third generation of

mobile phone standards and
technology, superseding 2G.
It is based on the
International
Telecommunication Union
(ITU) family of standards
under the International
Mobile Telecommunications

What is the Maximum clock

frequency in 8086?
5 Mhz is the Maximum clock
frequency in 8086.
What are the various segment
registers in 8086?
Code, Data, Stack, Extra
What are the various registers
in 8085?
Accumulator register, Temporary
register, Instruction register, Stack
Pointer, Program

What is Stack
Pointer
Stack pointer is a
special purpose 16bit register in the
Microprocessor,
which holds the

What is clock frequency for

8085? 3 MHz
Why crystal is a preferred clock
source?
Because of high stability, large
Q (Quality Factor) & the
frequency that doesnt drift with
aging. Crystal is used as a clock
source most of the times.