Chapter 16

Wireless WANs:
Cellular Telephone
and Satellite Networks
16.1

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

161CELLULARTELEPHONY
Cellular
telephony
is
designed
to
provide
communications between two moving units, called
mobile stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and
one stationary unit, often called a land unit.
Topics discussed in this section:
Frequency-Reuse Principle
Transmitting
Receiving
Roaming
First Generation
Second Generation
Third Generation
16.2

Wireless Communications

When?

Mobile communications is needed

Terrain makes wired communication
difficult
Communications must be set up quickly
Communications must be installed at
low cost
Same information broadcast to many
locations

Wireless Disadvantages

More susceptible to
interference, noise, signal
loss, and eavesdropping
Generally lower data rate than
wired
Frequencies interfere in close
proximity
Less connection stability

Cellular Network
Organization

Multiple low power transmitters

100w or less

Area divided into cells

Each with own antenna

Each with own range of frequencies
Served by base station

Transmitter, receiver, control unit

Adjacent cells on different

frequencies to avoid crosstalk

16.6

To make this tracking possible, each

cellular service area is divided into
small regions called cells.
Each cell contains an antenna and is
controlled by a solar/AC powered network
station, called the base station (BS).
Each base station, in tum, is controlled
by a switching office, called a mobile
switching center (MSC).
The MSC coordinates communication
between all the base stations and the
telephone central office.
It is a computerized center that is
responsible for connecting calls,
recording call information, and billing

16.7

Cell size is not fixed and can be

increased or decreased depending on the
population of the area.
The typical radius of a cell is 1 to 12
mi.
High-density areas require more,
geographically smaller cells to meet
traffic demands than do low-density areas.
cell size is optimized to prevent the
interference of adjacent cell signals.
The transmission power of each cell is
kept low to prevent its signal from
interfering with those of other cells.

Frequency-Reuse
Neighboring cells cannot use the
Principle
of frequencies for communication

16.8

same set
because
it may create interference for the users
located near the cell boundaries
the set of frequencies available is
limited, and frequencies need to be reused
frequency reuse pattern is a configuration
of N cells, N being the reuse factor, in
which each cell uses a unique set of
frequencies.
When the pattern is repeated, the
frequencies can be reused

Frequency
Reuse
Patterns

Figure 16.2 Frequency reuse patterns

The cells with the same number in a
pattern can use the same set of frequencies. We call these cells the
reusing cells

16.10

Transmitting

16.11

To place a call from a mobile station,

the caller enters a code of 7 or 10
digits and presses the send button.
The mobile station then scans the band,
seeking a setup channel with a strong
signal, and sends the data (phone
number) to the closest base station
using that channel.
The base station relays the data to the
MSC
The MSC sends the data on to the
telephone central office

Overview of Cellular
System

Transmitting

16.13

If the called party is available, a

connection is made and the result is
relayed back to the MSC.
At this point, the MSC assigns an
unused voice channel to the call,
and a connection is established.
The mobile station automatically
adjusts its tuning to the new
channel, and communication can
begin.

Receiving

16.14

When a mobile phone is called, the

telephone central office sends the
number to the MSC.
The MSC searches for the location of
the mobile station by sending query
signals to each cell in a process
called paging.
Once the mobile station is found, the
MSC transmits a ringing signal and,
when the mobile station answers,
assigns a voice channel to the call,
allowing voice communication to begin

Handoff

16.15

During a conversation, the mobile station

moves from one cell to another and the
signal may become weak
To solve this problem, the MSC monitors
the level of the signal every few seconds
If the strength of the signal diminishes,
the MSC seeks a new cell that can better
accommodate the communication.
The MSC then changes the channel carrying
the call hands the signal off from the
old channel to a new one

Types of Handoff
Hard Handoff:
In a hard handoff, a mobile station only
communicates with one base station.
When the MS moves from one cell to another,
communication must first be broken with the
previous base station before communication can be
established with the new one.
This may create a rough transition.

Soft Handoff
A mobile station can communicate with two base
stations at the same time.
This means that, during handoff,a mobile station
may continue with the new base station before
breaking off from the old one.

16.16

Roaming

16.17

Roaming means, that a user can have

access to communication or can be
reached where there is coverage.
A service provider usually has
limited coverage.
Neighboring service providers can
provide extended coverage through a
roaming contract.

First Generation

16.18

The first generation was designed

for voice communication using
analog signals.
Mostly telephony only, virtually no data
capability other than special device
with analog modem. This generation is
now mostly obsolete
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
AMPS is an analog cellular phone
system using FDMA.

Shape of Cells

Square

Width d cell has four neighbors at distance d and

four at distance
d
2
Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant

Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna

Hexagon

Provides equidistant antennas

Radius defined as radius of circum-circle

Distance from center to vertex equals length of side

Distance between centers of cells radius R is

3
R
Not always precise hexagons

Topographical limitations
Local signal propagation conditions
Location of antennas

Cellular Geometries

Frequency Reuse

Power of base transceiver controlled

Allow communications within cell on given frequency

Limit escaping power to adjacent cells
Allow re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
Use same frequency for multiple conversations
10 50 frequencies per cell

E.g.

The pattern consists of N cells

K total number of frequencies used in systems
Each cell has K/N frequencies
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) K=395, N=7
giving 57 frequencies per cell on average

Cell Splitting

N=7, 32 cells, R=1.6km, in total

336 channels

Operation of Cellular
Base station (BS) at center of each cell
Systems

Controller handles call process

One MTSO serves multiple BS

MTSO to BS link by wire or wireless

MTSO:

Number of mobile units may in use at a time

BS connected to mobile telecommunications

switching office (MTSO)

Antenna, controller, transceivers

Connects calls between mobile units and from mobile to

fixed telecommunications network
Assigns voice channel
Performs handoffs
Monitors calls (billing)

Fully automated

Channels

Control channels

Setting up and maintaining calls

Establish relationship between
mobile unit and nearest BS

Traffic channels

Carry voice and data

Call Stages

Three Generations

1st Generation

2nd Generation

based on analog voice using frequency

modulation
digital techniques and time-division
(TDMA) or code-division multiple access
(CDMA)

3rd Generation

broadband access for personal

communications services (PCS)

Note

AMPS is an analog cellular phone

system using FDMA.

16.31

Figure 16.5 Second-generation cellular phone systems

16.32

Advanced Mobile Phone

Service

1st Generation
most common
mobile phone
service since
early 80s
developed by
AT&T

AMPS Spectral
Allocation

Two 25-MHz bands

Each split in two to allow

competition

base to mobile (869-894 MHz)

mobile to base (824-849 MHz)

each operator allocated 12.5 MHz

bands

416 channels per operator

395 for calls, 21 for control data

Figure 16.3 Cellular bands for AMPS

16.35

Figure 16.4 AMPS reverse communication band

16.36

AMPS Spatial Allocation

Limited channels dictate frequency reuse

in nearby cells
Generally 10 to 50 frequencies assigned
to cell
Pattern of 7 cells smallest allowing
sufficient isolation
57 frequencies per cell
6.5 to 13 km per cell
May be split with lower power

Note

D-AMPS, or IS-136, is a digital cellular

phone system using TDMA and FDMA.

16.38

Figure 16.6 D-AMPS

16.39

AMPS Components

Mobile Units

Base Transceiver

contains a modem that can switch

between many frequencies
3 identification numbers: electronic
serial number, system ID number,
mobile ID number
full-duplex communication with the
mobile

Mobile Switching Center

AMPS Mobile Units

Modem that can switch between

frequencies
Power output of unit controlled to match
size of cell
Three identification numbers

electronic serial number - 32 bits

system operator identification number - 15
bits
mobile identification number - 34 bits phone #

AMPS Logon

When mobile becomes operational, it

senses control channels to determine
channel and base station received best
Exchanges information via base station
Announces its system id # to identify
its home carrier
Home carrier contacted for
authorization and to locate mobile for
incoming calls

AMPS Handoffs

Roaming operator must move

between cells

Different cells have different

frequencies and power levels

Choice of handoff depends on

received power from base
stations and controlled by
mobile switching center

Global System for Mobile

Comm.

2nd Generation
First appeared in 1991 in Europe
Similar to working of AMPS
Designed to support phone, data,
and image
Rates up to 9.6 kbps
GSM transmission is encrypted
using secret keys

Global System
for Mobile
Developed to provide common 2ndCommunication
generation technology for Europe

200 million customers worldwide,

almost 5 million in the North America
GSM transmission is encrypted
Spectral allocation: 25 MHz for base
transmission (935960 MHz), 25 MHz
for mobile transmission (890915 MHz)

GSM SIM

Subscriber Identity Module

Smart card or plug-in module to
activate unit
stores

subscribers identification number

networks subscriber is authorized to use
encryption keys

Can use any unit anywhere with your SIM

Multiple Access

Four ways to divide the

spectrum among active users

frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM)
time-division multiplexing (TDM)
code-division multiplexing (CDM)
space-division multiplexing (SDM)

GSM Access Methods

FDM too wasteful

TDMA - time-division multiple access

early lead - more successful experience

CDMA - code-division multiple access

theoretical advantages
increased range
choice for 3rd generation

Figure 16.7 GSM bands

16.51

Figure 16.8 GSM

16.52

Figure 16.9 Multiframe components

16.53

Note

GSM is a digital cellular phone system

using TDMA and FDMA.

16.54

Figure 16.10 IS-95 forward transmission

16.55

Figure 16.11 IS-95 reverse transmission

16.56

Note

IS-95 is a digital cellular phone system

using CDMA/DSSS and FDMA.

16.57

Choice of Access
Methods

FDM, used in 1st generation systems, wastes

spectrum
Debate over TDMA vs CDMA for 2nd generation

TDMA advocates argue there is more successful

experience with TDMA.
CDMA proponents argue that CDMA offers additional
features as well, such as increased range.
TDMA systems have achieved an early lead in actual
implementations
CDMA seems to be the access method of choice for
third-generation systems

3rd Generation Wireless

Provide high speed wireless for voice, data,

video and multimedia
ITUs view

voice quality of wired

144 kbps high-speed roaming / 384 kbps low-speed
adaptive interface to internet for asymmetric
speed
more efficient use of spectrum
support wide variety of equipment, services, etc

PCS & PCN

Personal Communications Services

(PCS)

find person easily

use communication system anywhere with
single account

Personal Communications Network

(PCN)

use terminal in wide variety of

environments to connect to information
services

WAP

Wireless Application Protocol

universal, open standard - WAP forum

provide mobile users access to information
services, including internet and web

Works with wireless network

technologies
Based on existing internet standards
such as TCP, IP, HTTP, HTML, XML
Support limited resources in and
variety of mobile devices

WAP Specs

Include

programming model
Wireless Markup Language (adhering
to XML)
Microbrowser
Lightweight protocol stack
Framework for wireless telephony
applications

Note

The main goal of third-generation

cellular telephony is to provide
universal personal communication.

16.63

Figure 16.12 IMT-2000 radio interfaces

16.64