Control Systems

EEE 332 CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Prof. Dr. Emin TACER
Phone: 0212 0212
4116100/22208
E-Mail:
emintacer@aydin.itu.tr
tacere@itu.edu.tr
Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer - 2015-2016
Aydn niversitesi
EEE 332 Control Systems

Prof. Dr. Emin TACER
Phone: 0212 4116100/22208
E-Mail: emintacer@aydin.edu.tr
Session and Semester
2015-2016, Summer
Time and Location
Tuesday- 13.00-16.00

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Knowledge and Understanding

Having successfully completed the
module, you will be able to
demonstrate knowledge and
understanding
of: of control systems
1 Recognize
engineering problems
2
3
4
5
6
Obtain mathematical models that describes control systems

Recognize PI, PD, PID systems and effects to process plants
Analyze stability of open-loop and close-loop control systems
Anayze system response
Design compansator for control systems in time domain

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Course Outline
PART 1
Introduction to Control Engineering
Review of Complex Variables & Functions
Review of Laplace Transform
Review of Linear Algebra
PART 2
Linear Differential Equations
Obtaining Transfer Functions (TFs)
Block Diagrams
An Introduction to Stability for TFs
Concept of Feedback and Closed Loop
Basic Control Actions, P-I-D Effects
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PART 3
Concept of Stability
Stability Analysis of the Closed Loop
System by Routh Criterion
State Space Representation and
Stability

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Teaching and learning activities

Teaching methods include
Lectures are used to describe and
develop the concepts above
Learning activities include
Examples will be given and
solutions worked through in the
lectures
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Course Requirements
It is expected that the students do
the reading former lectures before
coming to the next class and be
prepared to participate in class
discussion and quizzes..
Homework assignments must be
turned in the following week.
A 70 % of attendance is a must to
take the final exam.
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Grading
Evaluation criteria
contribution
Number
%
of final mark
Midterm Examinations
1
60 %
Quiz+Attendance 1 25 %
Homework 3 15%
TOTOL 100 %
Contrbution of in-term Assessment to
overall Grade 60 %
- Final Examination
40 %
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Text Book
and
References
Ogata, K. Modern Control Engineering, Fifth Edition

Mehmet nder Efe, Otomatik Kontrol Sistemleri Matlab Destekli
Analiz ve Tasarm ile, Sekin Yaynclk, Ankara,
2014.Praskevpolus P.N, Modern Control Engineering.
Distefano I.J., Stubberd A.R., Williams I.J.,!Schoums Outline of
Theory and Problems of Feedback and Control Systems!, Second
Edition.
Katsuhiko Ogata System Dynamics 4th Edition 2003, Dynamic
Systems, Pearson Prentice Hall,
Kuo, B.C., Automatic Control Systems, 7/ed, Prentice Hall, 1995.
Ogata K., Solving Control Engineering Problems withMATLAB,
Prentice-Hall, 1994 (MATLAB Reference).
Doyle J., Francis B., Tannenbaum A., Feedback Control Theory,
Macmillan Publishing Co., 1990
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Academic Honesty
Copying from others or providing answers or information, written

or oral, to others is CHEATING.
Copying from another students paper or from another text

without written acknowledgement is PLAGIARISM.
Cheating and plagiarism are serous offences and resulting in an F

grade and disciplinary action.
Please avoid cheating and plagiarism while preparing your

assignments and all through your life.

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INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS
Automatic control is esential in any field of engineering and

science,
It is desirable that most engineers and scientists are familar
with theory and practice of automatic control.
Automatic control is an important and integral parts of
space-vechile systems
robotic systems
modern manufacturing systems
any industrial operating involving control of
o temperature,
o pressure
o humidity
o flow
o etc
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What is the Control Theory?

Control theory is the mathematical
study of how the output (or some
other variable) of a system can be
made to behave in a desired way by
manipulating the parameters
affecting the behavior of a system

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Mathematical modeling involves descriptions of important system
characteristics by sets of equations.
By applying physical laws to a specific system, it may be possible to develop
a mathematical model that describes the dynamics of the system.
Such a model may include unknown parameters, which must then be
evaluated through actual tests.
Sometimes, however, the physical laws governing the behavior of a system
are not completely defined, and formulating a mathematical model may be
impossible.
If so, an experimental modeling process can be used. In this process, the
system is subjected to a set of known inputs, and its outputs are measured.
Then a mathematical model is derived from the input-output relationships
obtained.
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Control theories commonly used today
are ;
Classical control theory (also called conventional control

theoy)
Modern
Classical
control
theory
is based on s domain
control
theory
Robust
analysis
of differential
equations
control
Developed during 1930s
NOTE *Box is
Laplace domain, transfer function used
Black box approach
For us important
I/O relationship only
is input and
output what is
inside the box is
not important for
us
Best suited
for SISO, linear systems
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Modern control theory

equation
is based on time domain analysis of differential
Developed post 1960s

Time domain
The State-Space Aproach is used
White box approach
I/O relationships
Internal dynamics
Suitable for MIMO, non-linear systems

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Robust control
The first step in the design of a control system is to obtain a
mathematical model of the plant or control object.
In reality, any model of a plant we want to control will include an error in
the modeling process.
That is, the actual plant differs from the model to be used in the design
of the control system.
To ensure the controller designed based on a model will work
satisfactorily when this controller is used with the actual plant, one
reasonable approach is to assume from the start that there is an
uncertainty or error between the the actual plant and its mathematical
model and include such uncertainty or error in the design process of the
control system.
The control system designed based on this approach is called a robust
control system.
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Brief Review of Historical Developments of

Control Theories and Practices.
Other significant works in the early stages of development

of control theory were due to Minorsky, Hazen, and Nyquist,
among many others.
In 1922, Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for
steering ships and showed how stability could be
determined from the differential equations describing the
system.
In 1932, Nyquist developed a relatively simple procedure
for determining the stability of closed-loop systems on the
basis of open-loop response to steady-state sinusoidal
inputs.
In 1934, Hazen, who introduced the term servomechanisms
for position control systems, discussed the design of relay
servomechanisms capable of closely following a changing
input.
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Brief Review of Historical Developments of

Control Theories and Practices.
During the decade of the 1940s, frequency-response
methods (especially the Bode diagram methods due to Bode)
made it possible for engineers to design linear closed loop
control systems that satisfied performance requirements.
Many industrial control systems in 1940s and 1950s used PID
controllers to control pressure, temperature, etc.
In the early 1940s Ziegler and Nichols suggested rules for
tuning PID controllers, called ZieglerNichols tuning rules.
From the end of the 1940s to the 1950s, the root-locus
method due to Evans was fully developed.
As modern plants with many inputs and outputs become
more and more complex, the description of a modern control
system requires a large number of equations.
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Brief Review of Historical Developments of Control Theories and Practices.
Classical control theory, which deals only with single-input,

single-output systems, becomes powerless for multipleinput, multiple-output systems.
Since about 1960, because the availability of digital
computers made possible time-domain analysis of complex
systems, modern control theory, based on time-domain
analysis and synthesis using state
variables, has been developed to cope with the increased
complexity of modern plants
and the stringent requirements on accuracy, weight, and
cost in military, space, and industrial applications.
During the years from 1960 to 1980, optimal control of both
deterministic and stochastic systems, as well as adaptive
and learning control of complex systems, were fully
investigated.
From 1980s to 1990s, developments in modern control
theory were centered around
robust control and associated19
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Brief Review of Historical Developments of Control Theories

and Practices
The first significant work in automatic control was James
Watts centrifugal governor for the speed control of a steam
engine in the eighteenth century. The basic principle of
Watts speed governor for engine,
The amount of fuel admitted to the engine is adjusted according to the

difference between the desired and the actual engine speeds.
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The sequence of actions may be stated as follows:

The speed governor is adjusted such that, at the desired speed, no pressured oil will flow
into either side of the power cylinder.
If the actual speed drops below the desired value due to disturbance, then the decrease in
the centrifugal force of the speed governor causes the control valve to move downward,
supplying more fuel, and the speed of the engine increases until the desired value is
reached.
On the other hand, if the speed of the engine increases above the desired value, then the
increase in the centrifugal force of the governor causes the control valve to move upward.
This decreases the supply of fuel, and the speed of the engine decreases until the desired
value is reached.

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A schematic diagram of temperature control of an electric furnature
Analog temperature is converted to a digital temperature by an

A/D converter
The digital temperature is fed to a controller through an
interface
This digital temperature is compared with the programmed
input temperature
If there is any discrepancy(error), the controller sends out a
signal to the heater,
through an interface, amplifier, and relay
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to bring the furnace temperature
to a desired value.
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EEE332 Control Systems course is related with classical control
theory.
Control System Terminology
System is an arrangement of physical components connected or

related in such a manner as to form and/or act as as an entire unit
Control System is an arrangement of physical components

connected or related in such a manner as to commond, direct or
regulate it self or another system

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Every system has two sets of variables,
The input/ Manipulated Variable/Control signal (u) is the

stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system. It is an
external signal applied in order to indicate a desired steady value for
the plant output.
The ouput/ Controlled Output variable (y) is the actual responce
obtained from a control system. The quantity that is measured &
controlled, is generally the output of the plant
Plants/process/controlled system System, machine, process to
be controlled (may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set
machine parts functioning
together)
Prof.Dr.M.Emin
Tacer - 2015-2016
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A control system may consist of a number of components.
To Show the function of each element block diagrams are
used in the control systems.
A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial
representation of the cause-and-effect relalation

between the input and output of a phycial systems.
Interior of the rectangle representing the block usually
contains a description of or the name of the element

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Control sytems are classified into two general categories;

1. Openloop
2. Closed-control systems.
Openloop control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the ouput. Output does not affect input.
Controller, Gc(s), is the element which ensures tha appropraite

control signal is applied to the plant,
Plant/Proess, G(s) is the system under the control-System,
machine, process to be controlled (may be a piece of equipment,
perhaps just a set machine parts functioning together).
s is the Laplace operator
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Gc ( s ) isG 1 ( s )
If plant is known, the optimum controller
But, the plant is rarely known perfectly & disturbances always
exis
Example1: Most toaster are open-loops systems because
they are controlled by a timer. The time required to make
good toast must be estimated by the user,
Example2 : Washing machine *open loop system

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Closed-loop control system is one in which the control

action is somehow dependent on the output.
The basic configuration of a simple closed-loop (feedback)
control system with a single input and a single output
(abbreviated SISO) is
Feedback is defined as the return to the input of a part of

the output of a machine, system, or process,(which distigusihes
the from open-loop systems.)
Lowercase letters are used to represent input and output

variables, capital letters Laplace transforms or z transform.
The arrows represent the direction of information or signal
flow.
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Smal circile is used to represent the summing point for the

operation of addition or subtraction, (some autors put a cross in the circule)
Takeoff point is used in order to have the same signal or

variable be an input or output to more than one block or
summing point

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- The reference input r (desired output) is an external signal

applied to the feedback control system.
- Error signal, e(s) is the difference between the desired output
and actual system output; negatif feedback, positive feedback

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- Feedforward (control) elements, g1 are the components of the

forward path that generate the control signal u aplied to the plant
- Forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the
controlled output c.
- Disturbance/Noise ,n is a signal which enters the system at a point
other than the reference input and has the effect of indeferming the
normal system operation
- Plant (or process or controlled system) g 2
Feedback elements ,h establish the fntional relationship between
controlled ouput and controlled ouput c
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Industrial Control System

Automatic controller, actuator, and sensor (measuring
element).
- An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with
the desired value,
determines the deviation. and produces a control signal that will reduce the
deviation to zero or a small value.
- The way in which the automatic controller produces the control signal is
called the
CONTROL ACTION
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An automatic Controller
the actual value - the desired value,

determines the deviation.
produces a control signal that will reduce the
compares
deviation to
zero or a small value.
detects the actuating signal ,

at very power level
amplifies it to a suffecently high level.

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The actuator
plant
is an element that produces the input to the

according to the control signal,
The sensor or measuring element

the output
suitable variable,
is a device that converts

variable into another
such as
a displacement. pressure, or voltage,

which can be
used to compare the output with the reference input
signal

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Industrial automatic controllers

according to their
can be classified
control action
1. Two-position, or on-off, controllers

2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative
controllers

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Two-position, or on-off, control action.
a two-position
control system
positions,
the actuating element has only two fixed

which are, in many cases,
simply on and off.
control is simple and
inexpensive
used extensively in both
industrial and household control systems.

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oOutput is measured & compared to the desired output

o Input to plant is regulated based on the error
o Unknown dynamics, disturbances, & noise can be
compensated
o CL systems may become unstable
o More expensive & complex compared to OL system
o Unknown dynamics, disturbances, & noise can be
compensated
Explanation of the diagram

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Examples 1.

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Solution
We use equation as the input voltage fuction

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING
Control sytem engineering consists of analysis and

design;
Analysis is the investigation of properties of an

exsisting system
Design is the choise and arrangement of system
components to perform a spesific task.
To analysis and design of a physical system the

specifications and description of the system must be
defined and then the mathematical model including these
properties must be establihed
The mathematical study of how to manipulate the
parameters affecting the behavior of a system to
produce the desired or optimal outcome.
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- Mathematical Model represents a physical system in terms of

mathematical equations; differential equation, diference equations.
- It is derived based on physical laws Newtons law, Circuit laws, etc.
- A differential equation
any algebraic or
transcendential equality which involves either diffentials or
derivatives. For instance Newtons second law f=M(dv/dt) or
Ohms law v=R(dq/dt).
- Differential equations are useful for relating rates of change of
variables and other parameters
Why do we need differential equations?
- To characterize the dynamics
- To obtain a model (which may not be unique)
- To be able to analyze the behavior
- Finally, to be able to design a controller
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- A difference equation
an algebraic or transcendential
equality which involves more than one value of dependent
variable(s).
- The dependent varibles do not involve either differential or
derivatives.
- Differences equations are useful for relating the evulation of
variables from one discrete instant of time to another.

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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS and LINEAR SYTEMS
A time variable equation

an equation in which one or
more terms depend explicily on the independent variable time,
A time varying system is described by differential equations
with coefficients that are functions of time. If the coefficients
vary with time, the system is said to be a time variying
system
m(t ) &
x&
(t ) b(t ) x&(t ) k (t ) x(t ) 0
A time-invariant equation
an equation in which none of
the terms depend explicily on the independent variable time.
If the coefficients do not vary with time, the system is said to be a
time invariant system
&
mx&
(t ) bx&(t ) kx(t ) 0

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- A partial differential equation

an equality involving one
or more dependent and two or more independent variables together
with partial derivatives of the dependent with respect to the
independent variables.
- An ordinary differential equations
an equality involving
one or more
dependent, one independent variable, and one or more derivatives of
the dependent variables with respect to the independent variable.
y(t) and u(t)

dependent variables, t
independent variable
Lumped parameter systems
described by ordinary
differential equations (ODE)
d2
d
m 2 u (t ) b u (t ) ku (t ) 0
dt
dt

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Examples

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Examples

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A linear term
and derivatives,
one which first degree in dependent variables
A linear equation
terms.
an equation consisting of a sum of linear
&
mx&
(t ) bx&(t ) kx(t ) 0
All others are nonlinar equations. A non-linear differential equation

2
has at least one
non-linear
m &
x&
(t ) x&term
(t ) y (t ) kx(t ) 0

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The signals in a control system, for example input and ouput

waveforms, are typically functions of some independent
variable, usually time denoted t.
Continous time signal is a signal dependent on a continuum
of values of independent variable t.
Discrete time signal/discrete data/sampleddata/digital signal, is defined at or interest at, only discrete
instants of the independent variable time t,
A proportional P controller has an output u proportional to
its input e, that is , u=Kpe, where Kp is a propottionality
constant

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A derivate (D) controller has an output proportional to the

derivative of its input e, that is , u=Kt de/dt, where Kt is a
propottionality constant
PD,PI,DI and PID controllers are combination of proportinal (P),
derivative (D), and integral (I) controllers
An integral (I) controller has an output proportional to the
integral of its input e, that is , u=KI e(t) integral de(t), where KI is
a propottionality constant

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A linear term
and derivatives,
one which first degree in dependent variables
A linear equation
terms.
an equation consisting of a sum of linear
&
mx&
(t ) bx&(t ) kx(t ) 0
All others are nonlinar equations. A non-linear differential equation

2
has at least one
non-linear
m &
x&
(t ) x&term
(t ) y (t ) kx(t ) 0
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Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems

Linear Time Varying (LTV) Systems
rential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of
dependent variable (e.g. time below).
LTI
LTV
A linear system obeys the principl

When is a dynamics linear?
of superposition
u1(t)
SYSTEM
y1(t)
u2(t)
SYSTEM
y2(t)
SYSTEM
y1(t)+y2(t)
u1(t)+ u2(t)
The system is linear if the principle of

superposition applies
Properties of Linear Systems
A linear system obeys the

principle of superposition
principle of homogeneity
If a sinusoidal input is fed

into a linear system, the
output will also be
sinusoidal at the same
frequency but with a
different amplitude & phase
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DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR D and THE CHARACTERISTICS EQUATION
Consider the n th-order linear constant-coefficient differential

equation
n
order linear constant-coefficient differential
equation, is the highest order of derivative .
Degree
the exponent of the higer power of the
highest order derivative has been cleared
D=d/dt
Dn=dn/dtn
defined as differential operatr,

defined as nth-order differential operatr
55

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EXAMPLE. The equation

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The solution of diferential equation has two

parts ;
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A homogeneous differential equation

does not have a forcing term
&
mx&
(t ) bx&(t ) kx(t ) 0
Free responce (transient component)-Natural responce
A forced differential equation does

have a forcing term
&
mx&
(t ) bx&(t ) kx(t ) f (t )
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Solving ODEs
Given a homogeneous 2nd order ODE of the
form
&
&
&
ax(t ) bx(t ) cx(t ) 0
Let x(t) = exp(t), compute & substitute the

derivatives of x(t) into the ODE
a 2 b c 0
The above algebraic equation in terms of is

known as the characteristic equation ()
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Solving ODEs (cont.)
Solve the above algebraic equation for

If has distinct roots 1 and 2, the solution is of
the form
x(t ) C exp(1t ) D exp(2t )
If has repeated roots 1,the solution is of the form

x(t ) C exp(1t ) Dt exp(1t )
If has complex conjugate roots 1,2 = a jb, the

solution is of the form
x(t ) exp( at ) C cos(bt ) D sin(bt )
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If has purely imaginary conjugate

roots 1,2 = jb,the solution is of the
form
x(t ) C cos(bt ) D sin(bt )
The unknown constants C and D are

determined using the initial
conditions (ICs)
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Solving ODEs
Given a homogeneous 2nd order

forced ODE of the form
&
ax&
(t ) bx&(t ) cx(t ) d (t )
the total solution will be the

summation of the homogeneous
and particular
solutions
x(t ) x (t ) x (t )
h
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First, the ODE is assumed to be homogeneous and
solved according to the rules stated above which yields
the homogeneous solution of the form
xh (t ) C exp(1t ) D exp(2t )
or similar
Next, a particular solution with a form similar to the
forcing function and all its derivatives is assumed
x p (t ) Ad (t ) Bd&(t ) L
This particular solution is substituted into the forced

ODE and solved for the coefficients A, B,
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The total solution becomes
x(t ) C exp(1t ) D exp(2t ) Ad (t ) Bd&(t ) L
where the only unknowns are the

coefficients C and D
These unknown coefficients are again
determined from the ICs.
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Example
75
SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS: STEPS,

RAMPS, AND IMPULSES
In the study of control systems and the equations which
describe them, a particular family of functions called singularity
functions is used extensively.
Each member of this family is related to the others by one or
more integrations or differentiations.
The three most widely used singularity functions are the unit
step, the unit impulse, and the unit ramp.
76
Singularity functions (also called switching functions) are

very useful in circuit analysis.
The three most widely used singularity functions in circuit
analysis are
othe unit step, Step input to study sudden disturbances
o the unit impulse, Impulse function to study the effects
of
shock inputs
o the unit ramp functions. Ramp input to study gradually
changing
inputs
Input
Time
Input
Time
Input
Time
A function is said to be discontinuous if it exhibits points of

discontinuity, that is, if the function jumps from one value to
another without taking on any intermediate values.
A well-known discontinuous function is the unit step
function * that is defined as
In
mathematically
Prof. Dr. M.Emin TACER 2016
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If the abrupt change occurs at t = t0 (where t0 > 0) instead of t = 0,

the unit step function becomes which is the same as saying that
u(t) is delayed by t0 seconds, as shown in Fig.
If the change is at t = t0, the unit step function becomes

(meaning that u0(t) is advanced by t0 seconds, as shown in Fig
79
The step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage

or current, like the changes that occur in the circuits of control systems
and digital computers.
For example,
0,
v(t) =
t<t0
V0 , t>t
may be expressed in terms of the unit step function as v(t) = V0u0(t t0)
If we let t0 = 0, then v(t) is simply the step voltage V0u0
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Unit impulse function (t)
(t) = du0(t)/dt
It is generally defined as
where
The unit impulse function (t) is zero

everywhere except at t = 0, where it is
undefined.
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where t = 0 denotes the time just before t = 0 and t = 0+ is the time just after t
= 0.
For this reason, it is customary to write 1 (denoting unit area) beside the arrow that
is used to symbolize the unit impulse function, as in Fig.
The unit area is known as the strength of the impulse function.

When an impulse function has a strength other than unity, the area of the impulse is
equal to its strength.
For example, an impulse function
10(t) has an area of 10.
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Figure shows the impulse the impulse functions 5(t + 2), 10(t), and 4(t
3).
To illustrate how the impulse function affects other functions, let us evaluate
the integral
where a < t0 < b. Since (t t0) = 0 except at t = t0, the integrand is
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85
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System Modeling & Controller Design

Properties of Linear Systems
Domains
The Transfer Function (TF) Approach
Classical control theory

Developed during 1930s
Laplace domain
Black box approach
I/O relationship only
Best suited for SISO, linear systems

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of Linear
Systems
Properties ofProperties
Linear
Systems

principle of superposition
principle of homogeneity
If a sinusoidal input is fed into a

linear system, the output will also
be sinusoidal at the same
frequency but with a different
amplitude & phase
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The Transfer Function
Several techniques used in solving engineering problems are

based on
the replacement of functions of a real variable (usually time or

distance) by certrain frequency-dependent representation , or
by functions of a complex variable dependent upon frequency.
Two very important transformation tecniques for linear control

system analysis are
The Laplace transform
The z-transform

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The transfer function (TF) of a dynamic system is

defined as the ratio of the Laplace transforms of the outputs to
the inputs when all ICS (Initial conditions) are assumed to be
zero
Y ( s)
G(s)
, u (0) u&(0) 0
U ( s)
The TF G(s) is a function of the complex variable s = + j and

is a complex valued variable
G ( s ) G exp( jR G )

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The TF gives the O/I relationship for a system and

nothing regarding the internal dynamics is presented
(i.e., is a black box approach)
Once the TF is determined, the output of the system
can be computed for any input
The TF is a property of the system and is independent
of the inputs
However, the TF will change depending on our
definition of the inputs & outputs for the same system

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The general procedure for deriving the transfer function

(TF) involves the following three steps;
1.determine the governing equation for the device expressed

in terms
of the output and input
2. Laplace transform the governing equation, assumming all
initial conditions are zero
3. Referring the equation to formulate the ratio of the output to
theinput
Example
Determine the dynamic behaviour of sepetatly excited
DC motor with connected mechanical load.

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The Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform is
an integral transform that is
used to convert time domain
ODEs to algebraic equations
in terms of the complex
Laplace variable s
s j
s-domain algebraic equations
are easier to solve
Once a solution to the
algebraic equation is
computed in the s-domain,
an inverse Laplace
transform is used to revert
back to the time domain

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P-1 Review of Laplace Transform
aplace transform of a function f(t) is defined as
f (t)A function of time such that f (t)=0 for t<0

s
A complex variable
L Laplace operator
F(s)
Laplace transform of f (t)

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MATHEMATICAL
MODELING Theory
Review of Complex
Number
A complex variable
(karmak deiken)
consists of a real ()
and imaginary ()
part
A complex variable
can also be expressed
as a magnitude |s| &
phase s using the
s exp( jR s ),
phasor snotation

s 2 2 , R s tan 1

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Eulers Theorem
j
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Review of Complex Variables & Functions

A function of a complex variable (e.g., the TF) is also complex
valued
The complex function will also have a real & imaginary part and
can be expressed as a magnitude and phase
Complex variable
Function of the complex variable s,

has a real part and imajinery part
Magnitude of the function G(s)
Angle of the function G(s)

Complex conjugate of the
function
G(s)
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The inverse Laplace transform is given by

+
Where c, the abscissa of convergence, is a real

constant and is chosen larger than the real parts
of all singular points of F(s). Thus, the path of
integration is parallel to the j axis and is displaced
by the amount c from it. This path of integration
is to the right of all singular points.
We will utilize simpler methods for inversion
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For example
This is f (t)
This
limit approaches zero for >.
The
abscissa of convergence is therefore c
Laplace integral will converge only if s, the
The
real part of s, is greater than the abscissa of
convergence
The Laplace integral

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Laplace transform of
Exponential Function
The abscissa of convergence: s >

Exponential function produces a pole in
the complex plane
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Lapla transform of
Step Functionce, 1(t)
The abscissa of convergence: s >

Step function produces a pole at the origin
of the complex plane
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Ramp Function
Ramp function produces double poles at

the origin of the complex plane
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Sinusoidal Function
Sinusoidal functions produce poles on

the imaginary ( j) axis
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Several Properties of Laplace Transform

&
Laplace Transforms of Important Functions

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1. Linearity
2. Time Shift (Delay, Advance)
3. Multiplication by eat

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4. Change of Time Scale a > 0
5. Real Differentiation

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6. Real Integration
If f (t) is of exp. order

7. Multiplication by t

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8. Laplace Transform of a Pulse
f (t)
A/t0
0
t0

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9. Laplace Transform of Impulse Function
f (t)
A/t0
0
t0

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10. Final Value Theorem
This theorem can be applicable if

f (t) settles down to a constant limit
sF(s)
has no poles on the imaginary axis, this
obviously means oscillations in f (t)

sF(s)
has no poles on the right half s-plane

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11. Initial Value Theorem
This Theorem can be applicable if

f (t) and df (t)/dt are both Laplace transformable
The
limit on the right hand side exists

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12. Laplace Transform of Convolution

where
t
and by duality

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Partial Fraction Expansion
Consider
where m<n.
If m=n, then find out the constant term and
separately write in the expansion, then invert.
If m>n, then find out the polynomial in s, and
write and invert it separately.
zis are zeros and pis are poles.
Poles and zeros may be complex numbers as
well
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If m<n, the expression
can be expanded as
where

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Consider
where, deg A<q+m. This expression can be expanded as
with
k=0,1,,q1
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An Example
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
Solution: Rewrite it as

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BLOCK DIAGRAMS ALGEBRA

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>
>
>
>
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>
122
Signals FG.
6

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127

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Signal Flow Graphs
Evaluating the transfer function of a complex system from the block diagram
representation may become difficult (especially as the number of feedback
paths increase)
Signal flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams for graphical

representation of dynamic systems
It is easier to evaluate the transfer function of a complex system with multiple
feedback loops represented with a signal flow graph using
Masons Gain Formula
A signal flow graph consists of

Branches representing the relationship between the output and input to a
sub-system
Nodes representing the variables or signals
Paths which are a continuous sequence of branches that traverses from one
node the another
Loops which are closed paths that originates and terminates at the same
node
Non-touching loops which are loops that do not have a common node
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Signal Flow Graphs
Branches
representing the
relationship
between the
output and input
to a sub-system
Nodes
representing the
variables or
signals
Paths which are
a continuous
sequence of
branches that
traverses from
one node the
another
Loops which are
closed paths that
originates and
terminates at the
same node

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Signal Flow Graphs
Aij
transmission function (Mathematical operatr mapping
Xj into Xi )
Xj and X i are
functions of s or z, Aij
functions , Aij (s) or Aij (s)
may

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139
Multiplication rules
Signal Flow Graphs
Paths
Forward Paths
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Example

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BLOCK DIAGRAMS ALGEBRA / Signal Flow Graphs

THE GENERAL INPUT-OUTPUT GAIN FORMULA

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Most important property of a continuous and discrete time

systems
Stability
The most important property of a dynamic system is stability

(~kararllk), is determined by its response to inputs or disturbances.
What is stability?
Why do we need to analyze

stability?
Stability is a property of the system

regardless
An unstable system is potentially
of the signals at the inputs and
dangerous!
outputs
When the power is turned on, the
Stability is an underlying
output will
requirement
in every
control
system
(decrease/oscillate)
The output
of a stable
system
due toincrease
a finite energy
input u(t) is also of
indefinitely
finite energy
Eventually this will damage the
The energy of a variable is defined as
2
physical setup
u (t ) dt
This type of stability is also called the bounded input-bounded

output (BIBO) or absolute stability
Note that other definitions for stability do exist
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How can we obtain if the system is

stable or not?
Characteristic equations gives the
performance of a system.
If we have transfer equation we can
obtain the characteristic equation
from it.
One simple method is routh stability
criterion *with this we can obtain if
the system is stable or not
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If the system has some roots with real parts equal to

zero but none with positive real parts the system is
said to be marginally stable
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The output of a system, due to a

finite energy input v(t) is also a finite
energy. The energy of a variable is
defined
This type of stability is called a bibo.

Bounded input bounded output.
Absloute stability
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Stability (cont.)
A system on the verge of instability is
termed a marginally stable system
Stability is a property of the
system and does not depend on the
inputs (similar to the transfer
function)
A plant may be designed to be
unstable for various reasons and a
stabilizing control can assure the
closed loop system is stable
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Stability in terms of TF poles

The poles of the system determine the stability of the system
If the real parts of the poles are negative, then the

transfer function is stable
Poles with negative real parts ( < 0) result in bounded inputbounded output (BIBO) or absolute stability stable systems
Poles with positive real parts ( > 0) result in absolutely
unstable systems
Purely imaginary poles ( = 0) are marginally stable
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What is the meaning of this?

Poles with zero imaginary parts
h(t)
Im
s-plane
Stable
x
Re(
Re
pi)<0
s-plane
t
h(t)
Im
x
Re(
Unstable
Re
pi)>0

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Poles with nonzero imaginary parts
h(t)
Im
s-plane
Stable
Re
Re(
pi)<0
s-plane
h(t)
Im
x
Re(
pi)>0
Re

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Unstable
t
157

Poles on the imaginary axis
s-plane
x
Re(
h(t)
Im
Re
pi)=0
s-plane
t
h(t)
Im
x
Re(
pi)=0
Re
Neither stable nor unstable

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A TF is said to be stable if all the roots of

the denominator have negative real parts
Poles determine the stability of a TF
Zeros may be stable or unstable as well,
but the stability of the TF is determined
by the poles

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Effect of Poles on Stability

(cont.)
The controller should be designed such that the poles of
the closed loop transfer function are all in the left-half
(stable) plane
Only a single unstable (marginally stable) pole is
sufficient to make the system is unstable (marginally
stable)
To determine if a system is stable, one needs to compute
all the poles and check the real parts of the poles
For high order systems, a computer is necessary to
compute the poles
As an alternative, the Routh-Hurwitz method can be
employed
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ROUTH STABILITY CRITERION

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ROUTH STABILITY CRITERION

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HURWITZ STABILITY CRITERION
The Hurwitz stability criterion, given next, gives conditions for all the
roots to have negative real parts in terms of the coefficients of the
polynomial. As stated in the discussions of Rouths stability criterion
for all the roots to have negative real parts, all the coefficients as must
be positive. This is a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition.
If this condition is not satisfied, it indicates that some of the roots have
positive real parts or are imaginary or zero. A sufficient condition for all
the roots to have negative real parts is given in the following Hurwitz
stability criterion: If all the coefficients of the polynomial are positive,
arrange these coefficients
in the following determinant:

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The Routh-Hurwitz Method

The Routh-Hurwitz method is a simple method for
determining the stability of a dynamic system without
computing the poles
The Routh-Hurwitz method can also be used to tune the
parameters of a controller/plant for a stable design
The characteristic equation ((s)) of a transfer function
is given in the polynomial form as
( s ) an s n an 1s n 1 K a1s a0 0
If a0 = 0, the system will have a pole at the origin and
will become marginally stable
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The Routh-Hurwitz Method

(cont.)
Any high order characteristic equation can
always be factored into terms of first (s + a) and
second
(s2 + bs + c) order terms
For such first and second order systems to have
stable poles, a, b, and c have to be positive
This is a necessary but not sufficient condition
for absolute stability of a system
The Routh-Hurwitz method is based on the
above reasoning for determining stability from
the coefficients without computing the roots of
the characteristic equation
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The Routh-Hurwitz Array

Given the characteristic equation
( s ) an s n an 1s n 1 K a1s a0 0
Assume that a0 0 (marginally

stability is not evident)
Construct the Routh-Hurwitz array
sn
s n 1
s n2
M
s0
an
an 2
an 1 an 3
bn 1 bn 2
M
M
an 4 L
an 5 L
bn 3 L

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The Routh-Hurwitz Array

(cont.)
where
an 1an 2 an an 3
an 1an 4 an an 5
bn 1
, bn 2
, K
an 1
an 1
and
bn1an3 bn2 an1

cn1
, K
bn1
The number of sign changes in the first column of

the array gives the number of poles with positive
real parts (unstable poles)
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Example The Routh-Hurwitz

Method
Determine the stability of the system
with the characteristic equation
( s ) s 3 s 2 2s 24
using the Routh-Hurwitz method

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Method
( s ) s 4 2 s 3 3s 2 4 s 5

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Special Cases
1. First entry of a row in the RouthHurwitz array is zero, but the other
entries in the row are not zero (i.e.,
(s) is missing a term)
Substitute a small positive number ()
for the zero term
Continue to fill the array accordingly
Once array is finalized, let approach
zero
Check firstProf.Dr.M.Emin
column
for sign changes 10/23/16
Tacer - 2015-2016
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Method
( s) s 3 2s 2 4s 8

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Method
( s ) s 3 3s 2

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Method
( s) s3 2s 2 s 2

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Method
( s ) s 5 2s 4 2 s 3 4 s 2 11s 10

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Special Cases (cont.)

2. All entries of a row in the Routh-Hurwitz array is
zero means that there is at least one pole pair that
is symmetric about the -axis
Determine the auxiliary polynomial P(s) from the
coefficients of the row above the row with all zero entries
Replace the entries of the zero row with the coefficients
of dP(s) / ds
The order of P(s) gives the number of symmetric pole
pairs
The roots of P(s) gives the pole pairs symmetric about
the -axis
Check first column for sign changes
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Method
( s ) s 5 2 s 4 24 s 3 48s 2 25s 50

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Example Routh-Hurwitz Based Parameter

Selection
Determine the admissable range of K

for stability of the closed loop system
shown below

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Relative Stability
The border of absolute stability is the s = j line
The Routh-Hurwitz method determines the relative
location of the poles of the system with respect to
this s = j line
Even if the poles of a system are all stable, one
might be interested in determining the relative
stability of the poles with respect to each other
(e.g., which pole is most likely to become unstable
when perturbed)
A pole with a shorter settling time (ts) is more stable
Such a pole will be further away from the s = j axis
(i.e., will have a smaller negative real part)
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Relative Stability
By modifying the Laplace
variable such that
s s 0
the j axis can be shifted
to the left by 0
The characteristic
equation can be
represented in terms of
the new variable
Routh-Hurwirtz based on
the modified polynomial
will provide the pole
locations relative to s =
0
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P-1 Review of Linear Algebra
Inner (Dot) Product of Vectors

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Multiplication of Two Matrices

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Determinant

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Determinant
Given a determinant, summing two rows and

writing the result as one of those rows do not
change the value of the determinant.
Similarly, summing two columns and using the
result as one of those columns do not change the
value of the determinant.
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Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

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Characteristic Polynomial
Note that a polynomial is said to be monic if the

coefficient of the highest order term is equal to unity
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic
polynomial

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Control Systems

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EEE 332 CONTROL

EEE 332 Control Systems

Session and Semester

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer - 2015-2016

Knowledge and Understanding

Obtain mathematical models that describes control systems

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer - 2015-2016

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer - 2015-2016

Teaching and learning activities

Ogata, K. Modern Control Engineering, Fifth Edition

Copying from others or providing answers or information, written

Copying from another students paper or from another text

Cheating and plagiarism are serous offences and resulting in an F

Please avoid cheating and plagiarism while preparing your

Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer - 2015-2016

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

Automatic control is esential in any field of engineering and

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Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer - 2015-2016

What is the Control Theory?

What is the Control Theory?

Classical control theory (also called conventional control

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Developed post 1960s

Suitable for MIMO, non-linear systems

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Brief Review of Historical Developments of

Other significant works in the early stages of development

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A schematic diagram of temperature control of an electric furnature

Analog temperature is converted to a digital temperature by an

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System is an arrangement of physical components connected or

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INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control System Terminology

The input/ Manipulated Variable/Control signal (u) is the

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INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control sytems are classified into two general categories;

Controller, Gc(s), is the element which ensures tha appropraite

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Closed-loop control system is one in which the control

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Prof.Dr.M.Emin Tacer - 2015-2016

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS