6.

1 Antiderivatives with
Slope Fields
Consider:
then:

y x2 3

or

y 2 x

y x2 5

y 2 x

It doesnt matter whether the constant was 3 or -5, since

when we take the derivative the constant disappears.
However, when we try to reverse the operation:
Given: y 2 x

y x2 C

find

We dont know what the

constant is, so we put C in
the answer to remind us that
there might have been a
constant.

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
Given: y 2 x and y 4 when x 1 , find the equation for y .

y x2 C
4 12 C
3C
y x2 3

This is called an initial value

problem. We need the initial
values to find the constant.

An equation containing a derivative is called a differential

equation. It becomes an initial value problem when you
are given the initial condition and asked to find the original
equation.

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
Definition Slope Field or Directional Field
A slope field or a directional field for the first order
differentiable equation
dy
f ( x, y )
dx

is a plot of sort line segments with slopes f(x,y)

for a lattice of points (x,y) in the plane.
Initial value problems and differential equations can be
illustrated with a slope field.

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
y 2 x

x y y'

0 0
0 1
0 2
0 3
1 0
1 1
2 0
-1 0
-2 0

0
0
0
0
2
2
4
-2
-4

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
y 2 x

If you know an initial

condition, such as (1,-2),
you can sketch the curve.
By following the slope
field, you get a rough
picture of what the
curve looks like.
In this case, it is a parabola.

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields

x dx

1 3
x C
3
1
1 3
4 C
3

definite integrals because we can find a

Integrals such as

x dx

are called

definite value for the answer.

1 3
1 C
3

64
1
C C
3
3

63

The constant always cancels

when finding a definite
integral, so we leave it out!

21

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
Integrals such as

are called indefinite integrals

x
dx

because we can not find a definite value for the answer.

2
x
dx

1 3
x C
3

When finding indefinite

integrals, we always
include the plus C.

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
Definition

Indefinite Integral

The set of all antiderivatives of a function f(x) is the

indefinite integral of f with respect to x and is denoted

f ( x)dx
f ( x)dx F ( x) C

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
1. x dx
n

dx
2.
x

x n1
C , n 1
n 1

ln x C

3. e dx e C
x

4. sin x dx cos x C

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
5. cos x dx

sin x C

6. sec x dx

tan x C

7. csc 2 x dx

cot x C

8. sec x tan x dx

sec x C

9. csc x cot x dx csc x C

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields

(x

2 x 3)dx

x dx

t 2 cos t dt

x
2
x 3x C
4
9
2

2
x C
9
1
sin t C
t

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields

sec x(tan x cos x)dx

sec x x C

(1 sin x csc x) dx

x cos x C

2t
2
(
e

t
) dt

e 2t t 3
C
2 3

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields
Find the position function for v(t) = t3 - 2t2 + t s(0) = 1
4

t
2t t
s (t )
C
4
3
2
4

0 2( 0) ( 0)
1

C
4
3
2
4

t
2t t
s (t )
1
4
3
2

C=1

6.1 Antiderivatives with

Slope Fields

d (cabin)

cabin
log cabin + C

log cabin

houseboat

6.2 Integration by
Substitution
The chain rule allows us to differentiate a
wide variety of functions, but we are able
to find antiderivatives for only a limited
range of functions. We can sometimes
use substitution to rewrite functions in a
form that we can integrate.

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

x 2

dx

u du
5

1 6
u C
6

x 2
6

Let u x 2
du dx
The variable of integration
must match the variable in
the expression.

Dont forget to substitute the

value for u back into the
problem!

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

1 x 2 x dx
2

1
2

1 x

Let u 1 x
du 2 x dx

The derivative of

du

3
2

2
u C
3
2
1 x
3

One of the clues that we look for is

if we can find a function and its
derivative in the integrand.

3
2 2

is

2 x dx .

Note that this only worked because

of the 2x in the original.
Many integrals can not be done by
substitution.

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

4 x 1 dx

1
2

1
du
4

3
2

2
1
u C
3
4
3
2

1
u C
6

Let u 4 x 1
du 4 dx
1
du dx
4

3
1
4 x 1 2 C
6

Solve for dx.

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

cos 7 x 5 dx
1
cos u 7 du
1
sin u C
7
1
sin 7 x 5 C
7

Let u 7 x 5
du 7 dx
1
du dx
7

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

2
3
x
sin
x
dx

1
sin u du

3
1
cos u C
3
1
3
cos x C
3

Let u x 3
du 3 x 2 dx
1
du x 2 dx
3
2

We solve for x dx
because we can find it
in the integrand.

6.2 Integration by
Substitution
4
sin
x cos x dx

sin x cos x dx
4

4
u
du

1 5
u C
5

1 5
sin x C
5

Let u sin x
du cos x dx


4
0

6.2 Integration by
Substitution
2

tan x sec x dx
new limit
1

u du
0

new limit

1 2
u
2 0
1
2

The technique is a little different

for definite integrals.

Let u tan x
2
du sec x dx

We can find
new limits,
u 0 tan 0 0
and then we

dont have
u tan 1
to substitute
4
4

back.
We could have substituted back and
used the original limits.

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

4
0

4
0

Using the original limits:

tan x sec 2 x dx

Let u tan x
du sec x dx
2

u du

u du

Leave the
limits out until
you substitute
back.

1 2
u

2
1
2 4
tan x
2
0

tan
2
4
Wrong!

1
2
tan 0
2

This is
The
match!
1 limits
1 dont
usually
2
2
1
1 0
more work
2
2
2 than finding
new limits

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

3x

x 1 dx
3

3 2
2

2
2
3

du 3 x dx
2

1
2

u du

2
u
3

Let u x 3 1

u 1 2

Dont forget to use the new limits.

0
3
2

u 1 0

2
2 2
3

4 2

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

2 x 1 x dx
2

3 x 4 dx

t 5 3t dt
2 8

tan t dt
3
sin
cos d

cot csc 2 d

6.2 Integration by
Substitution

x2
dx
x 1

e2

5x

e
3 e5 x dx

cos x sin 2 x dx

dx

dx
x ln x

1 x x 2 dx

6.2 Integration by
Substitution
In another generation or so, we might be able
to use the calculator to find all integrals.
Until then, remember that half the AP exam and
half the nations college professors do not allow
calculators.
You must practice finding integrals by hand until
you are good at it!

6.3 Integrating by Parts

Start with the product rule:

d
dv
du
uv u v
dx
dx
dx
d uv u dv v du
d uv v du u dv
u dv d uv v du

u dv d uv v du
u dv d uv v du
u dv uv v du
This is the Integration by Parts
formula.

6.3 Integrating by Parts

u dv uv v du
u differentiates to

dv is easy to

zero (usually).

integrate.

The Integration by Parts formula is a product rule for

integration.
Choose u in this order:

LIPET

Logs, Inverse trig, Polynomial, Exponential, Trig

6.3 Integrating by Parts

x cos x dx
polynomial factor

u v v du

x sin x sin x dx

u dv uv v du
LIPET

ux

dv cos x dx

du dx

v sin x

x sin x cos x C

6.3 Integrating by Parts

ln x dx
logarithmic factor

u v v du

1
ln x x x dx
x

u dv uv v du
LIPET

u ln x

dv dx

1
du dx
x

vx

x ln x x C

6.3 Integrating by Parts

x e dx
u v v du
x e e 2 x dx
2 x

2 x

u dv uv v du

x e 2 xe e dx
2 x

u x2

dv e x dx

du 2 x dx

v ex

ux

x e 2 xe dx
2 x

LIPET

dv e x dx

This is still a product, sox we

v

e
du

dx
need to use integration by
parts again.

x e 2 xe 2e C
2 x

6.3 Integrating by Parts

A Shortcut: Tabular Integration
Tabular integration works for integrals of the form:

f x g x dx
where:

Differentiates to
zero in several
steps.

Integrates
repeatedly.

Also called tic-tac-toe method

6.3 Integrating by Parts

2 x
x
e dx

f x & deriv. g x & integrals

2
x

ex

2x

ex

ex

Compare this with

the same problem
done the other way:

2 x
x
x
x
e

2
xe

2
e
C
x e dx
2 x

6.3 Integrating by Parts

sin x dx

3
x

sin x

3x 2

cos x

6x
6

sin x

sin x

cos x

x3 cos x 3 x 2 sin x 6 x cos x 6sin x + C

6.3 Integrating by Parts

LIPET

u cos x

cos x dx
u v v du

cos x e e sin x dx
x

cos x e x e x sin x dx

du sin x dx

v ex

u sin x

dv e x dx

du cos x dx

cos x e sin x e e cos x dx

x

dv e dx
x

v ex

This is the
expression we
started with!

6.3 Integrating by Parts

cos x dx

cos x e x e x sin x dx
cos x e x e x sin x dx

u cos x dv e dx
x
du sin x dx v e
x

x
u sin x
dv e dx
du cos x dx v e x

x
x
x
x
e
cos
x
dx

cos
x

sin
x

cos x dx

2 e x cos x dx cos x e x sin x e x

x
x
sin
x

cos
x

e
x
C
e cos x dx
2

6.3 Integrating by Parts

The goal of integrating by parts is to go from
an integral u dv that we dont see how to
integrate to an integral
v du that we can
evaluate.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
The number of rabbits in a population increases at a rate
that is proportional to the number of rabbits present (at
least for awhile.)
So does any population of living creatures. Other things
that increase or decrease at a rate proportional to the
amount present include radioactive material and money in
an interest-bearing account.
If the rate of change is proportional to the amount present,
dy
the change can be modeled by:

dt

ky

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
dy
ky
dt

1
dy k dt
y

1
y dy k dt
ln y kt C

Rate of change is proportional

to the amount present.
Divide both sides by y.

Integrate both sides.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
e

ln y

kt C

y e e
C

kt

Exponentiate both sides.

When multiplying like bases, add

exponents. So added exponents
can be written as multiplication.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
y e e

C kt

y Ae

kt

y0 Ae
y0 A

Since

k 0

At

eC

is a constant, let e

t 0 , y y0

y y0e

kt

A.

This is the solution to our

original initial value
problem.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
Exponential Change:

y y0 e

kt

If the constant k is positive then the equation

represents growth. If k is negative then the equation
represents decay.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
Continuously Compounded Interest

If money is invested in a fixed-interest account where the

interest is added to the account k times per year, the
kt
r

amount present after t years is:

A t A0 1
k

If the money is added back more frequently, you will make

a little more money.
The best you can do is if the
interest is added continuously.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay

Of course, the bank does not employ some clerk to

continuously calculate your interest with an adding machine.
We could calculate:

r
lim A0 1
k
k

kt

Since the interest is proportional to the amount present,

the equation becomes:
Continuously Compounded
Interest:

A A0 e

rt

You may also use:

A Pe

rt

which is the same thing.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
Radioactive Decay
The equation for the amount of
a radioactive element left after
time t is:

y yO e

kt

The half-life is the time required for half the material to decay.

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
Radioactive Decay
60 mg of radon, half-life of
1690 years. How much is left
after 100 years?

y yO e

kt

30 60e
1 1690 k
e
2

1690 k

1
ln 1690k
2
k .00041

y 60e

( .00041)(100 )

y 58 mg

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
100 bacteria are present initially and double
every 12 minutes. How long before there are
1,000,000

y yO e

kt

200 100e

12 k

k .0577
1,000,000 100e(.0577 )(t )

2e

10000 e.0577 t

ln 2 12k

t 159 minutes

12 k

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
1
2

ln

y0 y0 e

Half-life

kt

1
kt

ln
e

2
0
ln1 ln 2 kt
ln 2 kt

ln 2
t
k

Half-life:

ln 2
half-life
k

6.4 Exponential Growth

and Decay
Espresso left in a cup will cool to the temperature of the
surrounding air. The rate of cooling is proportional to the
difference in temperature between the liquid and the air.
dT

If we solve the
k T Ts
differential equation: dt
Newtons Law of Cooling
we get:
T Ts T0 Ts e kt

where Ts is the temperature

of the surrounding medium,
which is a constant.

6.5 Population Growth

Bears

Years

6.5 Population Growth

kt
y

y
e
We have used the exponential growth equation
0

to represent population growth.

The exponential growth equation occurs when the rate of

growth is proportional to the amount present.
If we use P to represent the population, the differential
equation becomes:
dP / dt

dP
kP
dt

The constant k is called the relative growth rate.

6.5 Population Growth

The population growth model becomes: P P0 e

kt

However, real-life populations do not increase forever.

There is some limiting factor such as food, living space or
waste disposal.
There is a maximum population, or carrying capacity, M.

6.5 Population Growth

A more realistic model is the logistic growth model where
growth rate is proportional to both the amount present ( P)
and the fraction of the carrying capacity that remains: M P

6.5 Population Growth

The equation then becomes:

Our book writes it this way:

dP
M P
kP

dt
M
Logistics Differential Equation

dP k

P M P
dt M

We can solve this differential equation to find the logistics

growth model.

6.5 Population Growth

Logistics Differential Equation

dP k

P M P
dt M
1
k
dP
dt
P M P
M
1 1
1
k

dt

dP
M P M P
M
ln P ln M P kt C
P
ln
kt C
M P

1
A
B

P M P P M P

1 A M P BP
1 AM AP BP

1 AM
1
A
M

Partial
Fractions

0 AP BP

AP BP
AB
1
B
M

6.5 Population Growth

Logistics Differential Equation

dP k

P M P
dt M
1
k
dP
dt
P M P
M
1 1
1
k

dt

dP
M P M P
M
ln P ln M P kt C
P
ln
kt C
M P

P
kt C
e
M P
M P
e kt C
P
M
1 e kt C
P
M
1 e kt C
P

6.5 Population Growth

Logistics Differential Equation

P
e kt C
M P
M P
e kt C
P
M
1 e kt C
P
M
1 e kt C
P

M
P
1 e kt C
P

M
1 e C e kt

Let A e

M
P
1 Ae kt

6.5 Population Growth

Logistics Growth Model

M
P
1 Ae kt

6.5 Population Growth

Logistic Growth Model

Ten grizzly bears were introduced to a national park 10

years ago. There are 23 bears in the park at the present
time. The park can support a maximum of 100 bears.
Assuming a logistic growth model, when will the bear
population reach 50? 75? 100?

6.5 Population Growth

Ten grizzly bears were introduced to a national park 10
years ago. There are 23 bears in the park at the present
time. The park can support a maximum of 100 bears.
Assuming a logistic growth model, when will the bear
population reach 50? 75? 100?

M
P
1 Ae kt

M 100

P0 10

P10 23

6.5 Population Growth

M
P
1 Ae kt

M 100

100
10
1 Ae0

At time zero, the population is 10.

100
10
1 A
10 10 A 100

P0 10

P10 23

10 A 90
A9

100
P
1 9e kt

6.5 Population Growth

M
P
1 Ae kt

M 100

100
23
1 9e k 10
100
1 9e

23
77
10 k
9e

23
e 10 k 0.371981
10 k

P0 10 P10 23

100
P
1 9e kt

After 10 years, the population is 23.

10k 0.988913
k 0.098891
100
P
1 9e 0.1t

6.5 Population Growth

100
P
1 9e 0.1t
We can graph
this equation
and use trace
to find the
solutions.

Bears

Years

y=50 at 22 years

y=75 at 33 years

y=100 at 75 years

6.6 Eulers Method

Leonhard Euler made a
huge number of
contributions to
mathematics, almost half
after he was totally blind.
(When this portrait was
made he had already lost
most of the sight in his right
eye.)
Leonhard Euler 1707 - 1783

6.6 Eulers Method

It was Euler who originated
the following notations:

f x (function notation)
e (base of natural log)
(pi)
i 1

(summation)
(finite change)

Leonhard Euler 1707 - 1783

6.6 Eulers Method

There are many differential equations that can not be solved.
We can still find an approximate solution.

We will practice with an easy one that can be solved.

dy
2x
dx

Initial value:

y0 1

6.6 Eulers Method

Recall the formula for local linearization

L( x) y ( x0 ) y ' ( x0 )dx

y1 y0 f ( x0 , y0 )dx

dy
f ( x, y )
where
dx

6.6 Eulers Method

dy
2x
dx

y0 1

dx 0.5

y1 y0 f ( x0 , y0 )dx

(0,1)

y1 1 (0)(.5) 1

(.5,1)

y2 y1 f ( x1 , y1 )dx
y2 1 (1)(.5) 1.5

(1,1.5)

6.6 Eulers Method

y3 y2 f ( x2 , y2 )dx
y3 1.5 (2)(.5) 2.5

(1.5,2.5)

y4 y3 f ( x3 , y3 )dx
y4 2.5 (3)(.5) 4

(2,4)

6.6 Eulers Method

Exact Solution:

dy
2x
dx
dy 2 x dx
1 0C

0,1

dx 0.5

y x2 C
y x2 1

6.6 Eulers Method

This is called Eulers Method.

It is more accurate if a smaller

value is used for dx.
It gets less accurate as you
move away from the initial
value.

6.6 Eulers Method

The book refers to an Improved Eulers Method. We will
not be using it, and you do not need to know it.
The calculator also contains a similar but more complicated
(and more accurate) formula called the Runge-Kutta
method.
You dont need to know anything about it other than the fact
that it is used more often in real life.
This is the RK solution method on your calculator.