CASTING PROCEDURES

FOR FIXED PARTIAL

DENTURE

Dr. Yashpreetsingh A. Bhatia

Pg Student
Department of Prosthodontics & Crown &
Bridge,
College of Dental Science & Research Centre

Contents
Introduction
Definitions
Wax pattern & master die
Spruing principles & technique
Burnout procedure
Cleaning of casted product
Casting defects
Summary & conclusion
References

Introduction
Castingis amanufacturingprocess by which a
moulted material is usually poured into
amould, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solidified part is also known as acasting,
which is ejected or broken out of the mould to
complete the process.
Casting is a 6000 year old process. The oldest
surviving casting is a copper frog from 3200
BC.
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting

History
The dental profession has used precision-type
castings for the most part of century.
Using the lost wax technique, W.H.Taggart in
1907 developed a process for making castings
used in restoration of prepared teeth.
This was followed by Jameson who introduced
the centrifugal-casting machine and Solbrig
who introduced the steam-pressure casting
machine.

Definitions
Casting (n): something that has been cast in a
mold; an object formed by the solidification of a
fluid that has been poured or injected into a mold.
Casting (v): the act of forming an object in a mold.
Casting ring: a metal tube in which a refractory
mold is made for casting dental restorations.

- The glossary of prosthodontic terms. The Journal Of

Prosthetic Dentistry; 2005:94/1

Definitions
Dental casting investment : a material consisting
principally of an allotrope of silica and a bonding
agent. The bonding substance may be gypsum (for
use in lower casting temperatures) or phosphates
and silica (for use in higher casting temperatures)
Investing : the process of covering or enveloping,
wholly or in part, an object such as a denture, tooth,
wax form, crown, etc. with a suitable investment
material before processing, soldering, or casting.
- The glossary of prosthodontic terms. The Journal Of
Prosthetic Dentistry; 2005:94/1

Clinical and Laboratory

1.Prepare
2.
3.
Making of
thewax
positive
tooth
pattern
orcast
teethand
to receive
obtain individual
a cast restoration.
die
Steps

- O brein. Dental Materials and Their Selection 3/e.

Wax pattern
There are 2 fundamental ways to prepare a
wax pattern for dental restorations:1)Direct method- Pattern is prepared on the
tooth in the mouth( used for small inlays).
2)Indirect method- Pattern is prepared on
the die/cast.

Making of wax pattern

Spruing of the
wax pattern (fix it
in space)

Spruing
Purpose:1. Fix the pattern in space so a mold can be
made
2. To create a channel for elimination of wax
during burnout
3. To form a channel for the ingress of
molten alloy during casting
4. To compensate for alloy shrinkage during
solidification
- O brein. Dental Materials and Their Selection
3/e. 2002

Types Of Sprues :1. Wax

2. Plastic
3. Metal
1. Wax sprues preferred & commonly used.
Allow easy escape of molten wax.

- O brein. Dental Materials and Their Selection 3/e. 2002

2. Plastic sprues :
Solid plastic sprues soften at higher
temperature than the wax pattern.
May block the escape of wax (of pattern)
because the wax melts at lower
temperature than plastic.
Thermal expansion of wax is 5 times
greater than plastic which will result in
excessive pressure build up inside the
mold during the burnout before plastic
sprue softens resulting in casting defects.

3. Metal sprues can be solid or hollow tubes.

Later one is preferable.
If metal sprue is used, it should be made
of non-rusting to avoid possible
contamination of wax pattern.
They are removed from the investment
along with the crucible former before
placing in furnace for heating.

Sprue design
Diameter :The sprue former should be at least 1.7
mm (14 guage) in diameter unless the
pattern is extremely small and up to 2.5
mm(10 guage) in diameter can be used for
very large patterns (bulky) full crown.

If large - causes distortion

If small - will solidify before casting itself

and cause localized shrinkage porosity

(suck back porosity) or may result in
deficient casting. Reservoir sprues are
used to overcome this problem.

-Phillips Science of Dental Materials 12/e.

Sprue Position: Some clinicians prefer placement of the

sprue former at the occlusal surface,
whereas others choose sites such as a
proximal wall or just below a non functional
cusp to minimize subsequent grinding of
occlusal anatomy & contact areas.
Ideal area for the sprue former is the
point of greatest bulk in the pattern to
avoid distorting thin areas of wax during
attachment to the wax pattern & to permit
smooth flow of the alloy.

Attachment and orientation:Should be attached at greatest cross-section

of the pattern.
As it is best for molten metal to flow from
thick to thin area i.e. from the marginal
ridges to the gingival margins and not the
reverse.
This also minimizes the risk of turbulence.

Length :Sprue length should be adjusted so that

the top of wax pattern is within
6 mm (1/4 inch) of open end of the ring for
gypsum bonded investment and
3 to 4mm (1/8 inch) for phosphate bonded
investment

- O brein. Dental Materials and

Their Selection 3/e. 2002

Direction:Direction should be 450 to the proximal

area.
It should be directed away from any thin or
delicate part of investment.
Molten alloy may abrade or
fracture
investment in this area

Casting ring liner

Provides investment expansion.

If not used the mold may become smaller

because of reverse pressure resulting from the

confinement of the setting expansion.
Placed 3.25 mm short of ends of the ring,
produces more uniform expansion.

Types :
1. Asbestos ( Was used earlier, but is not
used now because of its carcinogenic
potential)
2. Aluminum silicate /ceramic liner
3. Cellulose liner (it has an advantage that
it can be made wet with water and allow
hygroscopic expansion)
Use of two layers of liner allow more
expansion.

Investing Procedure
Wax pattern should be cleaned of any

debris, grease or oil ( a commercially

available wax pattern cleaner or a diluted
synthetic detergent may be used).
Any excess liquid is shaken off and pattern
is left to air dry.
A thin film of cleanser left on pattern
reduces surface tension of wax pattern and
permit better wetting of investment.

Mixing
Liquid and powder of investment material

are mixed with care so as not to

incorporate air in the mix. (Vacuum mixing
is preferred).
Mechanical mixing under vacuum removes
air bubbles created during mixing &
evacuates any potentially harmful gases
produced by the chemical reaction of the
high heat investments.

Investing Pattern
For investing by hand- entire pattern is

painted(inside & out) with a thin layer of

investment with the help of brush which
should not touch the pattern.
Casting ring is positioned on the crucible
former,& the remainder of the investment
is poured slowly into the ring from one side
while vibrating the assembly.

With

vacuum
investingthe
same
equipment used to mix the investment is
employed to invest the pattern under
vacuum.
Tilting the ring slightly aids in releasing
these bubbles so that they can rise to the
surface.
Advantages:Results in smoother texture of the cast
surface for better reproduction of details.
The amount of porosity in the investment
is reduced by vacuum investing.
The tensile strength of vacuum mixed
investment is also increased.

Pre casting care:If hygroscopic technique is employed, the

filled casting ring is immediately placed in

a 37C water bath with the crucible former
side- down.
For thermal expansion or high-heat
technique, the invested ring is allowed to
bench set undisturbed for the time
recommended by the manufacturer.
Gypsum bonded and phosphate bonded
investment are now ready for burnout after
setting of one hour.

Wax elimination and heating

Once

the investment has set for an

appropriate period 45mins. it is ready for
burnout.
Remove crucible former and any metal
sprue.
Clean any debris with a camel hair brush.
The investment ring should be kept in 100%
humidity in case burnout procedure is not to
be carried out immediately.

It

is advisable to begin the burnout

procedure while the mold is still wet,
because water trapped in the pores of
investment reduces the absorption of wax
& as water vaporizes, it flushes wax from
mold.
Investing rings are placed in a furnace and
heated
to
prescribed
maximum
temperature.

For Gypsum bonded investment

5000C for hygroscopic technique (low heat
technique)
700C
for
thermal
expansion
technique( high heat technique).
For Phosphate bonded investment
7000C-10300C depending on type of alloy
selected.

Hygroscopic
technique

low

heat

Heating is done at 500c for 60 minute ( It

can be done up to 5 hour or longer with little

damage).
Expansion
for compensating casting
shrinkage is obtained by1. 37c water bath expands the wax pattern.
2. Warm water entering investment mold
adds some hygroscopic expansion.
3. Thermal expansion at 500c.

Added expansion for newer noble alloys is

obtained by1. Increasing water bath temperature to 40c.

2. Using two layers of liners.
3. Increasing burnout temperature range of
600c to 650c.
Advantage:1) Less mold degradation.
2) Cooler surface for smoother castings.
3) Convenience of placing molds directly at
468C

High-heat thermal expansion

technique
This approach depends almost entirely on

high heat burnout to obtain the required

expansion and at the same time
eliminating the wax pattern.
Additional expansion is obtained from:Expansion of pattern from heat produced
during setting.
Warm water entering the mold from wet
liner causing some hygroscopic expansion
additional to the normal setting expansion.

Burn out temperature generally employed

Alloys

Burn out temperature

generally employed

Gold alloys

Slow burn-out 450C

Rapid burn-out 700C

Ni/Cr alloys

815870C
(15001600F)

Co/Cr alloys

870900C
(16001650F)

Palladium (28%
Gold)

700870C
(13001600F)

Silver-Palladium

760815C
(14001500F)

Casting Metal in Gypsum

Investment
Mold

are placed in furnace at room

temperature and slowly heated to 650c to
700c in 60 minutes and held for 15 to 30
minute.
Rapid heating can generate steam which
can cause flaking of mold walls.
It may also cause cracking of investment
because outer layer of investment expands
thermally resulting compressive stress in
outer layer and tensile stress in inner layer.
These
crack
appear
from
interior
outwardly in form of radial cracks.

Sulfer dioxide production

It occurs rapidly over 700c with reduction
of calcium sulfate by carbon.
CaSo4 + 4C CaS + 4CO
3CaSo4 + CaS 4CaO + 4SO2
The sulfur dioxide produced contaminates
gold castings and makes them brittle.
This emphasizes the need to completely
eliminate the wax and avoiding burnout
temperatures above 7000c, particularly if
the investment contains carbon.
Furthermore, sulfer gases are generated
by gypsum investment when it is heated

After

casting temp. has reached, the

casting should be made immediately.
Maintaining
a
high
temp.
for
a
considerable length of time may result in
sulfur contamination and also in rough
surface of casting.
Methods for rapid burnout procedure are:- Placing the mold in a furnace at 315C
for 30min. & then rapid heating.
Or
- Directly place into a furnace at the final
burnout temperature held for 30minutes &

Casting Metal in Phosphate

Investment
Phosphate investment obtain expansion by:1)Expansion of wax pattern this is
considerable as setting reaction raises the
mold temperature substantially.
2)Setting expansion this is usually higher
than in gypsum investments, especially as
special liquids (silica sol) are used to
increase such expansion.
3)Thermal expansion this is greater when
taken temperatures higher than those used
for gypsum bonded investments.

Total expansion of 2% or more is required

for metal-ceramic prosthesis, since gold &

base metal alloys require higher melting &
solidification temperatures.
Phosphate investments are harder &
stronger than Gypsum investments.
But, they are quite brittle & are subject to
the same unequal expansion of adjacent
sections as phase changes occur during
heating.

Phosphate Bonded Investments require:1) Higher burnout temp. for total

elimination of wax patterns.
2) Completion of chemical & physical
changes.
3) Prevention of premature solidification of
higher melting alloys. Usual burnout
temperature range from 750C-900C.
Heating rate is usually slow to 315C & is

quite rapid thereafter, reaching completion

after a hold at upper temp. for 30mins.

Casting machines
Several types and designs of casting
machines are used to make dental
castings.
All casting machines accelerate molten
metal into the mold either by
1. Air pressure
or
2. Centrifugal force.
Numerous modifications and
these methods are used
machines.
The selection of the casting
techniques is influenced by

variations of
in different
and melting
type of alloy

Air Pressure Technique

The alloy is melted in in the crucible hollow
of the ring followed by air or gas pressure
applied on the melt.
Here the alloy is melted by blow-pipe or
flame in the hollow left by the crucible
former.
The high surface tension of the liquid
metal prevents it from falling down in to
the sprue channel.
Once the metal has been melted to the
casting temperature, the air tight piston
is applied with 10 to 15 psi air pressure to

Method shown by William H

Taggart.
On

January 15th 1907 in front of

Odontological society of New York .
The technique involved carving directly in
the mouth, a wax model of the cavity to be
filled.
The model with a small sprue attachment
was embedded in a special plaster
investment, and the plaster heated,
burning out the
wax.

Gold melted with a blow pipe , forced

into the plaster mold by means of the
casting
machine,
which
utilized
compressed air.
The resulting inlay fit the cavity so
closely that a very thin film of cement

This was followed by Jameson who

introduced the centrifugal-casting machine
in 1907 and Solbrig who introduced the
steam-pressure casting machine.

The Richmond Casting Machine

was invented and patented in
1926.
It

combined
the
use
of
compressed air or steam
pressure and the creation of a
vacuum.

The pressures generated were

recorded in the pressure
gauge and were controllable to

Types of casting machines used at present

Centrifugal casting machine
Induction melting machine
Electrical
resistance
heated

casting

machine
Direct-current arc melting machine.
Vacuum
or pressure-assisted casting
machine

Centrifugal casting machine

Types:
motor driven or spring driven
vertical rotating casting machine
horizontal casting machine.
Principle:broken arm principle
Pressure - 30-40 psi (0.21- 0.28 Mpa)

or

Crucible

Balancing weight
Metal

Casting ring

Locking arm

Handle

The metal is melted by torch flame in a

glazed ceramic crucible attached to broken

arm of crucible.
After the metal has reached the casting
temperature the machine is released and
spring triggers the rotational motion.
When metal fills the mold a hydrostatic
pressure gradient develops along the
length of casting.
Usually the pressure gradient at the
moment
before
solidification
begins
,reaches about 0.21 to 0.28 MPa at tip of
casting.

Methods of Melting the Alloys

Generally two methods are employed for
melting of metal alloy prior to casting:
Flame / Blow pipe.
Electrical.
A) FLAME
The fuel employed is a mixture of oxygen-air
and acetylene.
The temperature of gas-air flame is influenced
by the nature of the gas and the proportion of
gas and air in the mixture.
Care should be taken to obtain a non-luminous
flame,
with
combustion
zones
clearly
differentiated for melting the alloy.

Parts of the flame:

First cone that comes directly from the nozzle
Air and gas are mixed before combustion.
No heat is present in the zone.

Second cone is the combustion zone

Green and immediately surrounding

the
inner cone.
Gas and air are partially combusted.
Oxidizing zone and
Should be kept away from the metal
during fusion (melting).

Third zone is the reducing zone which is dimly blue.

Hottest part of the flame and is just beyond the
Green combustion zone.
This area should be on metal during fusion

tip of

The outermost zone (oxidizing). Should NOT be

used to melt alloy.

When reducing zone is in contact, the surface of the

gold alloy bright & mirrorlike.

When oxidizing portion of the flame is in contact
with the alloy, there is a dull film of dross
developed over the surface.
The alloy 1st appears to be spongy & then small
globule of fused alloy appears. Molten alloy soon
assumes a spheroidal shape.
At proper casting temp., the molten alloy is light
orange & tends to spin & follow the flame when
latter is moved slightly.
The use of an electric furnace casting machine
eliminates the need for a torch & the judgment
required in heating gold alloy.
When torch is used, alloy should be preheated

B) ELECTRICAL
There are two methods by which electricity can be
employed to melt the alloy.
1. Induction.
2. Electric Arc (Resistance).
Although, both the methods work on same principle i.e.
heat energy is produced when electric current is
passed through a conductor depending upon the
voltage applied across it.
H=Pxt
H=VxIxt
(P = V x I)
H = V2 x R x t
(I = V x R) Ohms law
Where,
H = Heat produced in joules. P = Powel in watts.
t = Time in seconds. V = Voltage in volts.

Induction melting machine

The apparatus consist of
high frequency induction
coil across which high
voltage is applied. This
high
frequency
coil
surrounds the crucible in
which the alloy / metal
pellets are melted.

The energy required to melt the alloy is

supplied by a transformer in which AC flows

through primary coil and generates
variable magnetic field.
The melting crucible is held in a centrifugal
arm, and during the melting process it is
surrounded
by
the
high
frequency
generator coil.
Once
the
alloy
reaches
casting
temperature in air or in vacuum, it is forced
into mold by centrifugal force, air pressure
or vacuum.

The
machine
operates
using
high
frequency electromagnetic waves and
should not be operated by anyone with a
heart pacemaker.

Electric arc / resistance

In this device current is passed through

resistance
heating
conductor,
and
automatic melting of alloy occurs. The
apparatus consist of an electrode and a
base plate on which the metal / alloy
pellet is placed.
The contact between the electrode
terminal and the metal / alloy pellet is in
form of an electric arc thus the term
electric arc furnace is used.

Diagram of arc-melting/gas pressure Cyclarc casting

machine.
(J Morita Co. manual for Cyclarc

Titanium Casting
Available casting machines are classified into 3
types:
(a)Inert gas arc-melting/gas pressure casting
machines that consist of 2 chambers: an
upper chamber (melting chamber) for arcmelting under an inert atmosphere (Ar gas)
and a lower chamber (mold chamber) with a
muffle in which the molten metal is forced
into under gravitational acceleration and
-Zinelisa
S. pressure;
Effect of pressure of helium, argon, krypton,
inert gas

and xenon on the porosity, microstructure, and

mechanical properties of commercially pure titanium

(b).Inert gas arc-melting/centrifugal casting

machines with vertical or
horizontal
centrifugal casting; and
(c).High-frequency
induction-melting/gas
pressure casting machines

-Zinelisa S. Effect of pressure of helium, argon,

krypton, and xenon on the porosity, microstructure,
and mechanical properties of commercially pure
titanium castings. J Prosthet Dent 2000;84:575-8.

Casting crucibles
Clay

High noble and noble metal alloys.

Carbon High noble and higher fusing gold

based metal ceramic alloys.
Quartz High fusing alloys for any type;
specially suited for alloys that have high
melting and are sensitive to carbon
contamination.

Cleaning the casting

After casting has been completed, the

ring is removed & quenched in water as

soon as the button exhibits a dull red
glow.
Advantages of quenching:1) The noble metal alloy is left in an
annealed
condition
for
burnishing,
polishing & similar procedures.
2) When water contact with hot
investment, a violent reaction ensues.
The investment becomes soft & granular
& the casting is more easily cleaned.

Surface of casting appears dark with oxides

& tarnish. Such surface film can be removed

by a process known as pickling, which
consists of heating the discoloured casting in
an acid.
For gypsum 50% HCl solution
- It aids in removal of any residual
investment as well as of the oxide coating.
The disadvantage of use of HCl is:1) The fumes from the acid are likely to
corrode lab. metal furnishings.
2) Health hazard & should be vented via a
fume hood.

Ultrasonic devices available for cleaning &

casting,
Best method for Pickling is to place the
casting in a test tube or dish & pour the acid
over it.
May be necessary to heat the acid, but
boiling is avoided, because of considerable
amount of acid fumes involved.
Pickling
solution
should
be
renewed
frequently, since it is likely to become
contaminated.
In no case the casting be held with steel
tongs because, when both the casting &

The pickling solution usually contains small

amounts of copper dissolved from previous

castings. When steel tongs contact with this
electrolyte, a small galvanic cell is created &
copper is deposited on the casting at the
point where tongs grip it.
Copper deposition extending into the metal
is a future source for discoloration.
Delicate margins may be melted or casting
may be distorted by sudden thermal shock,
when heated casting is plunged into acid.
Gold based & palladium based metal
ceramic alloys & base metal alloys are
bench cooled to room temp. before casting

All the investment should be removed before

further surface refinement.

Precious alloys(Gold-Platinum-Palladium) can
be soaked with hydroflouric acid.
Semiprecious alloys(Gold-Silver-Palladium or
Silver-Palladium) are only acid treated.
Nickel Chromium should never be placed in
acid because of high reactivity. Part of the
casting is not to be veneered with porcelain,
finished 1st & can be polished to smooth finish
by conventional techniques, but grease based
agents must not contact the surface to which
porcelain is added because, the organic residue
could easily lead to gas bubbles, porcelain
detachment & discoloration.

Greasy films are removed by cleaning

the casting with household ammonia

followed by, rinsing with distilled water.
Small nodules & residual oxidation on
the porcelain bearing surface can be
removed by rotary carbide burs &
ceramic bound stones.
Once porcelain bearing surface is clean,
sandblast it with a clean 25-50m
aluminium oxide abrasive to texturize it.
Casting can now be cleaned in distilled
water in an ultrasonic cleaner.

Casting Defects
Nodules due to bubbles of gas trapped in
investment.
Fins caused by cracks in investment from
weak mix, excessive casting force, too
rapid burnout, reheating the ring, pattern
too close to edge of ring or rough
handling of ring after investing.

Incompleteness in areas of wax thinner than

0.3mm, inadequate heating of metal,
incomplete wax elimination, excessive cooling
(freezing) or mould, insufficient casting
force, not enough metal, or metal spillage.
Voids or porosity debris trapped in mould,
too narrow or too long or incorrectly located
sprue, absence of a chill vent in a large
casting, dissolution of gases in metal, back
pressure porosity where investment is not
porous enough.

Marginal discrepancies due to distortion

of wax pattern on removal from die,
increased setting expansion (hygroscopic
technique).
Dimensional inaccuracies standardized
procedures not followed.

References
1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting
2)The glossary of prosthodontic terms. The Journal Of
Prosthetic Dentistry; 2005:94/1
3)Anusavice K.J. Dental waxes, Casting Investments,
and Casting Procedures. Phillips Science of Dental
Materials 12/e. 2013:194-230.