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ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
Atoms are very small ~ 10-10 meters
All atoms are made up of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and
electrons
The
Atomic Structure
The actual values of the masses and charges
of the sub-atomic particles are shown below:
A meaningful
way to consider the masses of the subatomic particles is to use relative masses
Atomic Structure -
Example
So
Atomic Structure -
Questions
Atomic Structure -
Questions
Summary Slide
All atomic masses are relative to
the mass of carbon-12.
Eg one hydrogen atom weighs 1/12
the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
the same atomic number, but different mass
numbers, i.e. they have different numbers of
neutrons.
Each atom of chlorine
contains the following:
35 Cl
17
17 protons
17 electrons
18 neutrons
37 Cl
17
17 protons
17 electrons
20 neutrons
Isotopes
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical
properties because they have the same number
of electrons. When a chemical reaction takes
place, it is the electrons that are involved in the
reactions.
However isotopes of an element have the
slightly different physical properties because
they have different numbers of neutrons, hence
different masses.
The isotopes of an element with fewer neutrons
will have:
Lower masses
Lower densities
Isotopes -
Questions
example.
2. One isotope of the element chlorine, contains
20 neutrons. Which other element also
contains 20 neutrons?
Mass Spectrometer
The mass spectrometer is an instrument used:
To measure the relative masses of isotopes
To find the relative abundance of the isotopes
in a sample of an element
Mass Spectrometer
Stages
Once the sample of an element has
been placed in the mass spectrometer,
it undergoes five stages.
Vaporisation the sample has to be in
gaseous form. If the sample is a solid or
liquid, a heater is used to vaporise some
of the sample.
X (s) X (g)
or X (l) X (g)
Mass Spectrometer
Stages
Ionization sample is bombarded
by a stream of high-energy
electrons from an electron gun,
which knock an electron from an
atom. This produces a positive
+
X
X
+
e
ion:
(g)
(g)
Acceleration
Mass Spectrometer
Stages
Deflection
The accelerated ions are deflected into
the magnetic field. The amount of
deflection is greater when:
the mass of the positive ion is less
the charge on the positive ion is greater
the velocity of the positive ion is less
the strength of the magnetic field is
greater
Mass Spectrometer
If all the ions are travelling at the same
velocity and carry the same charge, the
amount of deflection in a given magnetic
field depends upon the mass of the ion.
For a given magnetic field, only ions with
a particular relative mass (m) to charge
(z) ration the m/z value are deflected
sufficiently to reach the detector.
Mass Spectrometer
Detection ions that reach the detector
cause electrons to be released in an ioncurrent detector
The number of electrons released, hence
the current produced is proportional to
the number of ions striking the detector.
The detector is linked to an amplifier and
then to a recorder: this converts the
current into a peak which is shown in the
mass spectrum.
Atomic Structure
Mass
Spectrometer
of boron
m/z value
Relative
abundance
%
11
10
18.7 81.3
Mass Spectrometer
Questions
A mass spec chart for a sample of
neon shows that it contains:
90.9%
0.17%
8.93%
Ne
21Ne
22Ne
20
Mass Spectrometer
Questions
90.9%
0.17%
8.93%
Ne
21Ne
22Ne
20
Ar= 20.18
Mass Spectrometer
Questions
52.
3
23.
22.
6
61.5
204 206 207 208
m/
e
Calculate the
relative atomic
mass of lead
You must show
all your
working!
Mass Spectrometer
Questions
1.5% 204Pb
23.6% 206Pb
22.6% 207Pb
52.3% 208Pb
Energy Levels
Electrons go in shells or energy
levels. The energy levels are
called principle energy levels, 1
to 4.
The
energyNumber
levels of
contain subPrinciple
energy
sub-levels
levels.
level
1
These sub-levels
are assigned the
letters, s, p, d, f
Energy Levels
Each type of sub-level can hold a
different maximum number of
electron.
Maximum
Sub-level
number of
electrons
10
14
Energy Levels
The energy of the sub-levels
increases from s to p to d to f. The
electrons fill up the lower energy
sub-levels first.
Looking at this table can you
work out in what order the
electrons fill the sub-levels?
Energy Levels
Lets take a look at the Periodic
Table to see how this fits in.
Electronic Structure
So how do you write it?
1s2
Energy level
Sub-level
Example
For magnesium:
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2
Number of
electrons
Electronic Structure
The electronic structure follows a pattern the
order of filling the sub-levels is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s,
3p
After this there is a break in the pattern, as
that the 4s fills before 3d.
Taking a look at the table below can you work
out why this is?
This is because the 4s
sub-level is of
lower energy than the
3d sub-level.
Electronic Structure
The order in this the energy levels
are filled is called the Aufbau
Principle.
Example
(Sodium 2, 8, 1)
Electronic Structure
There are two exceptions to the Aufbau
principle.
The electronic structures of chromium
and copper do not follow the pattern
they are anomalous.
Chromium 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d5,
4s1
2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2. 3p6, 3d10, 4s1
Copper
1s
Write the electronic configuration for the following elements:
a) hydrogen
b) carbon
c) oxygen
d) aluminium
e) copper
f) fluorine
Electronic Structure
of ions
Positive ions: formed by the loss of e1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6
Na atom
Na+ ion
Negative ions: formed by the gain of e1s2 2s2 2p4 1s2 2s2 2p5
O atom
O- ion
Ti2+ ion
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
Cr atom
Cr3+ ion
Electronic Structure
Questions
Electronic Structure
Questions
Mass
proton
no.
s
Mg
27
S2-
Ni2+
10
16
21
16
45
30
Electronic
structure
1s2 2s2 2p6
3s2
12
Al3+
Sc3+
neutron electron
s
s
26
Orbitals
The energy sub levels are made up of
orbitals, each which can hold a
maximum of 2 electrons.
Different sub-levels have different
number of orbitals:
Sublevel
Max. no.
No. of
of
orbitals
electrons
10
14
Orbitals
The orbitals in different sub-levels have
different shapes:
s orbitals
1s
p orbitals
2s
Orbitals
Within a sub-level, the electrons occupy
orbitals as unpaired electrons rather
than paired electrons. (This is known as
Hunds Rule).
We use boxes to represent orbitals:
2p
1s
2s
Electronic structure of
carbon, 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
Orbitals
The arrows represent the electrons in
the orbitals.
The direction of arrows indiactes the
spin of the electron.
Paired electrons will have opposite spin,
as this reduces the mutual repulsion
between the paired electrons.
2p
1s
2s
Electronic structure of
carbon, 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
Orbitals
Using boxes to represent orbitals, give
the full electronic structure of the
following atoms:
a) lithium
potassium
d) nitrogen
b) fluorine
e) oxygen
2p
2s
1s
c)
Orbitals
Using boxes to represent orbitals, give
the full electronic structure of the
following atoms:
a) lithium
potassium
d) nitrogen
Electronic structure of
lithium: 1s2, 2s1
2s
1s
b) fluorine
e) oxygen
2p
c)
Orbitals
Using boxes to represent orbitals, give
the full electronic structure of the
following atoms:
e) oxygen
2p
2s
1s
Electronic structure of
fluorine: 1s2, 2s2, 2p5
b) fluorine
a) lithium
potassium
d) nitrogen
c)
Orbitals
Using boxes to represent orbitals, give
the full electronic structure of the
following atoms:
a) lithium
potassium
d) nitrogen
b) fluorine
e) oxygen
Electronic structure of
potassium: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
3p6, 4s1
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
4s
c)
Orbitals
Using boxes to represent orbitals, give
the full electronic structure of the
following atoms:
a) lithium
potassium
d) nitrogen
Electronic structure of
nitrogen: 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
b) fluorine
e) oxygen
2p
2s
1s
c)
Orbitals
Using boxes to represent orbitals, give
the full electronic structure of the
following atoms:
a) lithium
potassium
d) nitrogen
Electronic structure of
oxygen: 1s2, 2s2, 2p4
b) fluorine
e) oxygen
2p
2s
1s
c)
Ionization Energy
Ionization of an atom involves the loss of an
electron to form a positive ion.
The first ionization energy is defined as the
energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of atoms of a gaseous element.
The first ionization energy of an atom can be
represented by the following general equation:
X(g) X+ + e- H > 0
Since all ionizations requires energy, they are
endothermic processes and have a positive
enthalpy change (H) value.
Ionization Energy
The value of the first ionization
energy depends upon two main
factors:
The size of the nuclear charge
The energy of the electron that has
been removed (this depends upon its distance from the
nucleus)
Ionization Energy
As the size of the nuclear charge increases the
force of the attraction between the negatively
charged electrons and the positively charged
nucleus increases.
Small
nuclear
charge
Small force
of
attraction
Smaller
ionization
energy
Large
nuclear
charge
Large
force of
attraction
Greater
ionization
energy
Ionization energy
As the energy of the electron increases, the
electron is farther away from the nucleus. As
a result the force of attraction between the
nucleus and the electron decreases.
Electrons closer
to positive
nucleus
Large force
of
attraction
Greater
ionizati
on
energy
Electrons
further away
from positive
nucleus
Small force
of
attraction
Smaller
ionizati
on
energy
Ionization energy -
Questions
(2
exceptions)
Na
494
Mg
736
Al
577
Si
786
1060
1000
Cl
1260
Ar
1520
(2
exceptions)
Phosphorus
3p
3s
3p
3s
mol-1
Na
494
Mg
736
Al
577
Si
786
1060
1000
1s , 2s , 2p , 3s ,
Cl sub-level (s, p, d
1260
Clue: which
or f is the outer electron in?
3p
2
3000
He
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Ne
N
Ar
Be
Li
F
O
Mg
Na
10
Al
P
Si
Cl
Ca
S
K
15
20
25
Ionization energy
- Questions
Successive Ionization
energy
Definition: 2nd i.e.
The energy per mole for the process
X+(g)
X2+(g) +eAnd so on for further successive ionisation energies
Successive Ionization
energy
Successive i.es increases because
electrons are being removed from
increasingly positive ions.
Therefore, nuclear attraction is
greater.
Large jumps seen when electron
is removed form a new sublevel
closer to the nucleus
Successive Ionization
energy
Large increase between
4th and 3rd shells
electron closer to
nucleus
Electron Affinity
Energy Change per mole for:
X (g) + e-
X-(g)
Electron Affinity
The first e.a is negative (exothermic) because
the electron is attracted to the positive charge
on the atoms nucleus.
The second e.a is positive (endothermic)
because an electron is being added to an ion
which is already negative : repulsion occurs