Structure and Function of

the Nervous System

Cells of the Nervous System

Glial cells: provide metabolic support,
insulation, and protection to neurons
Neurons: cells that rapidly change
membrane voltage to convey
electrical and chemical messages
Sensory (afferent) neuron: carries
information back to the CNS
Interneuron: neurons in the brain and
spinal cord- most neurons are this type
Motor (efferent) neuron: carries
information away from the CNS to an
effector organ

Glial Cells
Astrocytes: in CNS, star-shaped cells that provide
structural support, maintain ionic and chemical
gradients, degrade NTs, BBB
Microglia: in CNS, modified immune system cells,
perform phagocytosis and immune defense
Oligodendrocytes: in CNS, one can myelinate up to
50 axons, inhibit axonal regrowth after injury
Ependymal cells: in CNS, line fluid-filled chambers
(ventricles) in brain and spinal cord, make CSF
Schwann cells: in PNS, one Schwann cells myelinates
one part of one axon, release trophic factors after
injury and provide path for regrowing axon
Satellite cells: in PNS, provide structural support for
axons (nerves), maintain ionic and chemical
gradients

Neuronal Structure
Dendrites: portion of a neuron that
convey information back to the cell
body (soma)
Usually synapses terminate on dendrites
Usually convergent in nature
Possess dendritic spines to increase
surface area
Average neuron in brain has 10,000
synapses onto it

Neuronal Structure
Soma: most metabolic functions performed here
Chromosomes (DNA) in nucleus with genes that code
for various proteins
Transcription factors (nuclear proteins that direct protein
production) bind to promoter regions of DNA to transcribe
genes

Transcription: process of producing mRNA from DNA

template
Translation: mRNA is transported to the cytoplasm
where it complexes with ribosomes (either in Nissl
substance or polyribosomes) to produce protein
products
Protein products shipped throughout cell via
axoplasmic transport along the cytoskeleton

Neuronal Structure
Axon: single long transmissive portion of a neuron
Axon hillock: region near the soma where an action
potential (AP) is generated
Axons can divide on way to target(s)- termed collaterals
Axons terminate at terminal buttons where electrical
and biochemical events cause the release of
neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles
Axoplasmic transport along microtubules
Can be either anterograde (kinesin) or retrograde (dynein)

Many axons are wrapped in myelin, a fatty substance

that greatly increases conduction velocity of an AP
Areas of exposed axon membrane at Nodes of Ranvier
In CNS, done by oligodendrocytes, in PNS by Schwann cells

Neuron Cell Membrane

Properties
Imbedded in the plasma membrane are:

Receptors for neurotransmitters/drugs/ligands

Enzymes for breakdown of NT/drugs
Transporter proteins
Ion channels (pores)
Some channels can be opened or closed= gated
channel
Ligand-gated: open or close based on presence of
chemical messenger
Voltage-gated: open or close based on membrane
charge/voltage (Vm)

Fig 6.14

Resting Membrane Potential

Resting Membrane Potential: difference in electrical
charge inside and outside the cell due to ionic
concentrations maintained by the cell
Due to selectively permeable nature of cell membrane
Usually around -70 mV in most neurons
Based on electrostatic pressure (force drawing ion to one
side of membrane to balance charges)
AND concentration gradient (force to equalize
concentration of a material across the membrane)
Equilibrium potential (Eion): point at which electrostatic
forces and concentration gradient are balanced. This
value is different for each ion.
Nernst equation gives us the E ion : Eion= 61mV x log [Ionout]

z
[Ionin]
where z = the valence of the ion

Resting Membrane Potential

In general:

[Na+] is higher outside

[K+] is higher inside
[Cl-] is higher outside
[Ca++] is higher outside
[Prot-] is higher inside

Each neuron has a threshold (usually around

-50 mV), which if reached, will cause an
irreversible and all-or-none action potential
to be fired.
Action Potential: rapid change in Vm that is
propagated down the axon from the axon
hillock to the terminal buttons

Local Potentials
Local potential: stimuli to the cell can cause small,
short-term local changes to Vm by opening ion
channels
Local potentials are graded- the more intense the
stimulus, the greater the response
Local potentials also decay rapidly as they move from
the site or origin
Depolarization: Vm becomes more positive, usually
due to Na+ or Ca++ influx
This produces an EPSP (excitatory post-synaptic potential)

Hyperpolarization: Vm becomes more negative,

usually do to Cl- influx (sometimes K+ efflux)
This produces and IPSP (inhibitory post-synaptic potential)

EPSPs and IPSPs summate at the axon hillock, and

determine if the neuron fires an AP

The Action Potential

If enough EPSPs summate to reach the
threshold of the neuron (-50 mV), an AP is
fired
At -50 mV, the activation gate of v-g Na+
channels in the axon hillock open, allowing a
huge influx of Na+, bringing the Vm near the E Na
After ~1 ms, the inactivation gate of v-g Na+
channels shut, stopping Na+ influx
At the same time the v-g Na+ channels shut, v-g
K+ channels open, allowing K+ efflux
K+ efflux actually overshoots the E K, to about -80
mV before the v-g K+ channels shut

The Action Potential

About 1000-1200 APs can be fired per second
with maximum stimulation
Absolute refractory period (ARP): during this time
the inactivation gate on a v-g Na+ channel is still
shut, and the channel CANNOT be stimulated
again
Relative refractor period (RRP): the v-g Na+
channel returns to its resting state (close act
gate/open inact gate), and can be stimulated
again, but harder to stimulate due to
hyperpolarization of neuron and harder to reach
threshold

The Action Potential

Once an AP is fired, Na+ flows passively down
the interior surface of the axon to nearby
regions, where changing the Vm overcomes
threshold and opens more v-g Na+ channels
This process continues down the axon, and after
a short period of time, each region of membrane
goes back to the RP (called Hodgkin Cycle)
Myelinated neurons conduct APs up to 15x more
quickly as Na+ jumps from node of Ranvier to
the next node (saltatory conduction)
Myelinated also use less energy, since Na/K pumps
dont have to work as hard to flush out as much Na+
Garden hose analogy

The Action Potential

Drugs/poisons:
caine anesthetics: make it harder to open
activation gate in v-g Na+ channels
Saxitoxin: from shellfish exposed to red tide
Gonyaulax dinoflagellate, blocks v-g Na+
channels
Tetrodotoxin (TTX): from pufferfish, v-g Na+
channel blocker
Batrachotoxin (BTX): from poison dart frogs,
wedges open v-g Na+ channels
Apamin (bees), charybdotoxin (scorpions),
dendrotoxin (snakes): block v-g K+ channels

Organization of the Nervous

System
CNS- brain, spinal cord
Nuclei- collections of neuronal cell
bodies in CNS, grey matter
Tracts- bundles of axons in CNS, usually
white matter

PNS- peripheral nerves and ganglia

Ganglion- collections of neuronal cell
bodies in PNS
Nerve- bundles of axons in PNS, almost
always myelinated

Organization of the Nervous

System
Somatic nervous system- relays sensory
and motor information, mostly voluntary
Spinal cord- grey matter is medial, white
matter is lateral
Grey matter in butterfly-like shape, dorsal and
ventral horns
Sensory afferents- enter through DRG, synapse on
interneurons or ascend on same side to medulla
Sensory neuron soma in DRG

Motor efferents- leave from ventral horn

Voluntary motor neuron soma in ventral horn
Involuntary motor neuron soma in intermediolateral
cell columns (IMLCC)

Organization of the Nervous

System
Cranial Nerves- part of somatic NS

I - olfactory (S) smell (olfaction)

II - optic (S) - vision
III - oculomotor (M) - controls four of six extraocular muscles
as well as the pupil & the lens
IV - trochlear (M) controls the superior oblique extraocular
muscle
V - trigeminal (B) - muscle of mastication/sensory to face
VI - abducens (M) controls the lateral rectus extraocular
muscle
VII - facial (B) - facial expression and taste from the anterior
2/3 of the tongue, etc.
VIII-vestibulocochlear or statoacoustic (S) - hearing & balance
IX - glossopharyngeal (B) swallowing snd taste from the
posterior 1/3 of the tongue, etc.
X - vagus (B) - sensory & motor to thoracic and abdominal
viscera
XI - spinal accessory (M) controls the trapezius &
sternocleidomastoid muscles
XII- hypoglossal (M) only nerve that moves the tongue

Organization of the Nervous

System
Autonomic nervous system- regulates internal body processes and
homeostatic mechanisms
Sympathetic ANS: activates during times of increased energy
requirements
Preganglionic neurons originate in ventral horn of spinal cord from T1-L3,
short axons
Postganglionic neuron soma mostly in paravertebral ganglia, usually long
axons to target tissue

Parasympathetic ANS: active most of the time, when energy

reserves can be conserved and stored
Preganglionic neurons originate in brain or sacral cord, long axons
Postganglionic neurons originate on target tissue, short axons

SANPAA
Sympathetic: Pregang releases Ach (nicotinic), postgang release NE (alpha
or beta)
Parasympathetic: pregang releases Ach (nicotinic), postgang releases Ach
(muscarinic)

Anatomical Structures of the

CNS
Meninges: three tissue layers that cover the brain and
spinal cord
Dura mater: outermost, thick tough tissue layer composed mostly of
collagen
Arachnoid: middle, membrane with web-like sublayer filled with CSF
Pia mater: inner, thin membrane that sits directly on nervous tissue

Cerebral ventricles: CSF filled chambers in the brain and

spinal cord
Lateral ventricles: one inside each hemisphere of the brain
(telencephalon)
Third ventricle: in dienecphalon
Cerebral aqueduct: connects third and fourth ventricle
Fourth ventricle: pons & medulla (metencephalon &
myelencephalon)
Central canal: in spinal cord

Anatomical Structures of the

CNS
Myelencephalon
Medulla: coordinates and controls vital functions- heart rate,
digestion, blood pressure, coughing, vomiting (area postrema)
CN XI and XII nuclei here

Metencephalon
Pons- means bridge in Latin, many axons cross to other side of
brain here (ascending and descending tracts)
Reticular formation- collection of ~100 nuclei involved in arousal,
attention, sleep, muscle tone, cardiac and respiratory reflexes
Contains the locus coeruleus, which is involved in arousal, vigilance and
attention (utilize norepinephrine heavily)
Also in pons are the dorsal and median raphe nuclei- generally inhibitory
function and utilize serotonin, involved with sleep, aggression,
impulsiveness, emotion, neuroendocrine functions (LSD inhibits these
neurons)

Cerebellum- sensorimotor center that recieves visual, auditory,

somatosensory, and vestibular input
It integrates and coordinates sensory and motor info from cortex, and
allows for smoother and corrective movements

Anatomical Structures of the

CNS
Mesencephalon
Tectum: superior and inferior colliculi (visual and
auditory orienting respectively)
Tegmentum: collection of nuclei in midbrain
Periaqueductal Greay (PAG): surround cerebral aqueduct,
involved in perception and modulation of pain and high
in opiate receptors
Substantia nigra: cluster of dopaminergic cells that
innervate the striatum, part of basal ganglia. Used in
initiation and modulation of movement
Ventral tegmental area (VTA): dopaminergic neurons that
project into limbic structures in forebrain (olfactory
tubercle, nucleus accumbuns, amygdala) and
mesocortical tract (prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex,
entorhinal cortex)

Anatomical Structures of the

CNS
Diencephalon
Thalamus: set of nuclei that process and distribute sensory
and motor info to and from cortex
Allows the cortex to direct attention to selectively important stimuli while
diminishing the significance of others

Hypothalamus: lies ventral to thalamus, made up of many

small nuclei critical to survival and regulates homeostatic
mechanisms of the body
Modulates temp, osmotic balance, hunger, thirst, energy metabolism,
reproductive behaviors and hormones, and some emotional responses
(aggression)
Affects both sympathetic and parasympathetic NS activity
Connected to pituitary gland via neuronal and hormonal pathways- can
have long-term physiological effects on body function
Paraventricular nucleus involved in stress, which plays role in clinical
depression and anxiety disorders

Anatomical Structures of the

CNS
Telencehpalon
Cerebral cortex (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes)
Basal ganglia: caudate, putamen, globus pallidus (along with
substantia nigra)- play role in modulating motor control
Limbic system: complex system that integrates emotional
responses and regulates motivational behavior and learning
Cingulate: involved in emotional components of pain and stress
Hippocampus: involved in spatial memory and establishing long-term
memory. Also thought to play role in Alzheimers, and highly susceptible
to levels of stress hormones (cortisol) which indicates involvement in
clinical depression and antidepressant drug treatment.
Amygdala: plays role in coordinating emotional responses and
aggression. Closely associated with olfactory system, hypothalamus,
thalamus, hippocampus, neocortex, and some brainstem nuclei. Also
involved in the action of alcohol, antianxiety drugs, and antidepressants.

Anatomical Structures of the

CNS
Cerebral cortex is grey matter on exterior, white
matter on interior
Fissures: deep grooves in surface of brain
Gyri: bulge of tissue on surface of brain
Sulci: small grooves between gyri on surface of brain

3 types of white matter fiber tracts in the CNS

associational - connect parts within same hemisphere
commissural - connect right and left hemispheres (ex:
corpus callosum)
projectional - ascending & descending tracts from and to
the spinal cord

Anatomical Structures of the

CNS
Brain divided into four lobes (frontal, parietal,
temporal, occipital)
Primary cortex: conscious awareness of sensory
experiences and initial cortical processing
Secondary cortex: adjacent to primary cortex, used
to analyze info from primary cortex and provide
semantic meaning to it- memories stored here
Tertiary cortex: provide higher-order perceptual
functions and associations needed for complex
action and recognition. Often lie in the borders of
the parietal-temporal-occipital cortices.