Chapter 12-2

The Effect of Turbulence

on Momentum Transfer

12.8 DESCRIPTION OF TURBULENCE

Turbulent flow is the most frequently encount
ered type of viscous flow (yet not nearly well d
eveloped).
In a turbulent flow the fluid and flow variables
vary with time, for example, small random fluc
tuations in velocity occur about the mean valu
e.
F 12.11
2

vxx,yzv(x,yzt)

(12-44)

Vx f ( x, y, z , t ) V x ( x, y, z , t )
time-averaged velocity

(12-45)

t1 >> duration of any fluctuation.

The mean value of

is zero,

(12-46)

Fluctuations contribute to the mean value of certain flow

quantities.
For example, the mean kinetic energy per unit volume
KE

V 2 , KE

The average of sum is the sum of the averages

A fraction of the total kinetic energy magnitude of the

turbulent fluctuations. The rms (root mean square)
values of the fluctuations, [(V' x 2 V ' y 2 V ' z 2 ) / 3]1 / 2 is a
significant quantity. Intensity of turbulence is defined as
(12-48)

dimensionless group or parameter

v mean velocity of the flow.
The intensity of turbulence is a measure of the kinetic
energy of the turbulence.
In model testing, simulation of turbulent flows requires not
only duplication of Reynolds number but also duplication
of the turbulent kinetic energy.
5

12.9 TURBULENT SHEARING STRESSES

In Chapter 7, the random molecular motion of th
e molecules was shown to result in a net momen
tum transfer between two adjacent layers of fluid
in laminar flow.
F 7.4

Large-scale fluctuation will result in a net transfe

r of momentum in the turbulent flow.
F 12.12

The control-volume expression for linear mometum

momen

(5-4)

The flux of x-directional momentum across the top of the

control surface is
(12-49)

In the case of steady mean flow, the time derivative in

equation (5-4) is zero.
(12-50)
7

vxy

The turbulent fluctuations is seen to contribute a mean x

directional momentum flux of
per unit area.
Their analytical description has not been achieved,
even for the simple case. Analogy between the
molecular exchange of momentum in laminar flow, and
the macroscopic exchange of momentum in turbulent
flow, the total shear stress

(12-51)

The turbulent contribution to the shear is called Reynolds

stress. In turbulent flows it is found that the magnitude of
the Reynolds stress is much greater than the molecular
contribution except near the walls.
8

d
v
x

y
x
A
/ y
M
t

By analogy with the form of Newtons viscosity relation

for laminar flow,

Boussinesq introduces the concept

At (turbulent)

(laminar)

At eddy viscosity.

With introduction of eddy diffusivity of momentum,

( turbulent )

(laminar)

(12-52)

vxx|y

12.10 THE MIXING-LENGTH HYPOTHESIS

Prandtl in 1925

f 7.4

f 12.12

Mean free path in molecular momentum exchange (laminar f

low)
mixing length (turbulent flow)
The velocity fluctuation
is hypothesized as being
due to the y-directional motion of a lump of fluid
through a distance L.
F 12.13
The instantaneous value of

(12-52)

is then

v x / yL v x / y ,
(12-51)

10

v
v
y
x

v
x
y
vx~y vxy

Pandtl assumed that

must be proportional to

(experimental data show that there is some degree

of proportionally between
and
.)
Using

, Prandtl expressed the time average,

, as

(12-53)

The constant in (12-53), which is unknown, may be

incorporated into the mixing length,
(12-54)

(12-51)

11

xA
yxturb

txyMy

A
t/

Comparison with Boussinesqs expression for the

eddy diffusivity ( i.e,(12-52) )
(12-55)

(12-54)

(12-51)

(12-52)

12

12.11 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FROM THE MIXINGLENGTH THEORY

Assumptions
In the neighborhood of the wall the mixing length is assum

ed to vary as L=Ky.
The shear stress is assumed to be entirely due to turbulen

ce and to remain constant over the region of interest.

The velocity is assumed to increase in the y direction, and
thus

13

vx=xmax
=

(12-56)

by setting

at y=h, whereby

(12-57)

(dimensionless group)

f(y/h )

14

The constant K was evaluated by Prandtl and Ni

kuradse to have a value of 0.4.
The agreement of experimental data for turbulen
t flow in smooth tubes with equation (12-57) is q
uite good (Figure 12.14.).
F 12.14

15

vx/0

12.12 THE UNIVERSAL VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION

By introducing a dimensionless velocity

(12-58)

we may write equation (12-56) as

(12-59)

Defining a pseudo-Reynolds number

(12-60)

16

equation (12-59) becomes

v=
f(y)

+
(12-61)

Equation (12-61) indicates that

or

(12-62)

F 12.15

F12.5

17

Universal velocity
distribution.
For turbulent core, y+30

3.4-ln e0/v
F12.5

(12-63)

For the buffer layer, 30 y+ 5

(12-64)

For the laminar sublayer, 5 y+ 0

(12-65)

In rough tubes, the scale of the roughness is found to affect

the flow in the turbulent core, but not in the laminar sublayer.
The constant becomes In =
for rough tubes.

18

12.13 FURTHER EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR

TURBULENT FLOW
Two important experimental results for turbulent flows
the power-law relation for velocity profiles and a
turbulent-flow shear-stress relation due to Blasius.
(A) velocity profile

For flow in smooth circular tubes, the velocity profile

may be correlated by
(12-66)

R radius of the tube

n vary from a value of 6 at Re=4000 to 10 at Re=
3,200,000.
19

At Re=105, n is 7.

//yR

1
/
7
xym
ax

one-seven-power law,
For flow over a flat plate

with boundary layer of thickness ,

(12-67)

Two obvious difficulties

(1) the velocity gradient at the wall is infinite,
(2) the velocity gradient at is nonzero.
20

(B) Blasiuss correlation for shear stress

For pipe-flow Reynolds numbers up to 105 and flatplate Reynolds numbers up to 107, the wall shear
stress
(12-68)

ymax = R in pipes ymax = for flat surfaces.

21

12.14 THE TURBULENT BOUNDARY

LAYER ON A FLATE PLATE
Boundary-layer thickness for turbulent flow over a s
mooth flat plate may be obtained from the von Karm
an momentum integral (similar to that in a laminar fl
ow).
In a laminar flow, a simple polynomial was assumed
to represent the velocity profile. In a turbulent flow, v
elocity profile depends upon the wall shear stress an
d no single function adequately represents the veloc
ity profile.
For a zero pressure gradient the von Karman integr
al relation is

34

(12-38)
22


xm
ax

Employing the one-seventh-power law for x and the

Blasius relation, equation (12-68) for 0 , equation (1238) becomes

(12-69)

Where
is written in place of
.
Performing the integration and differentiation

(12-70)

upon integration

(12-71)

23

If the boundary layer is assumed to be turbulent from

the leading edge, x=0 (a poor assumption),
35

(12-72)

The local skin-friction coefficient

36

(12-73)

Several things are to be noted

First, they are limited to values of Rex 107,
Second, they apply only to smooth flate plates.
Last, a major assumption the boundary layer to be
turbulent from the leading edge.24

12.15 Comparison of Laminar and Turbulent

Boundary Layer

At the same Reynolds number, the turbulent

boundary layer is observed to be thicker, and is
associated with a larger skin friction coefficient.
In most cases of engineering interest, a turbulent
boundary layer is desired because it resists
F 12.16
separation better than a laminar boundary layer.
(thus being able to remain unseparated for a greater distance
in the presence of an adverse pressure gradient)

The turbulent boundary layer has a greater mean

velocity, hence both greater momentum and energy
than laminar boundary layer.
25

12.15 FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRASITION

FROM LAMINAR TO TURBULENT FLOW

So far the occurrence of transition has bee

n expressed in terms of the Reynolds num
ber alone, while a variety of factors other t
han Re actually influence transition.
The Reynolds number remains the
principal parameter for predicting
transition.
T 12.2
26

(Vx,Vy=?

=? )

39

yxturbyAtdyx

How regularity
Laminar
Turbulent

Steady VX=VX
V=V
Fluctuation
V=V+V
Vx=Vx+Vx
Vy=Vy+Vy
Vz=Vz+Vz
(Vx,Vy,Vz=?)

How element

Shear stress

Molecules

Diffasion of molecules

Fluid packets

Diffusion of molcules
mixing of fluid packets

In the
neighborhood
of the wall
L=ky
=
y=0

=
40

=f(y+)
f(y/h)

V +~y+

41