Metals and Its Alloys, their

crystalline structure and

properties

By: M. Sc. Arnaldo Valds Carrazana.

WEB:
https://acarrazana.coursesites.com
Email: acarrazana@salcc.edu.lc

Knowing the
world of metals
and alloys means
create solutions!

OBJECTIVES
To analyze the most common alloys
used in engineering.
To explain the influence of the crystalline
structure and the grains in the final
properties.
To explain the main tests to obtain the
mechanical properties.
To familiarize with the classification of
steels and its nomenclature according to
AISI , SAE and European codes.

Pure Metals in the Periodic Table.

Materials Classification Chart

Pure Metals
and their
Alloys
Ferrous =
(Base Iron)
Pure Iron
(Fe).

Nonferrous = (No
Iron)

Polymer
ic

Thermoplas
tics
Thermoset
Elastomers

Cerami
c

Glasse
s
Ceram
ics
Graphi
te
Diamo
nd

Composit
e

Reinforced plastics
Metal-matrix
composites
Ceramic-matrix
composites
Sandwich
structures
Concrete

Aluminum (Al) and

its alloys (Silumin

and Duralumin)
Steels (Fe+C

Copper
(Cu)
and
where C<1.7%)

its alloys (Brasses

Cast Iron
and Bronzes)
(Fe+C where
Nickel (Ni) and its
C1.7%)
alloys
Precious metals
(Au, Ag)
Refractory metals
(Nb, Mo, Ta, Ti).
Metal: any of several solid mineral elements (such as iron, gold, silver, copper, etc.) that are malleable under heat or
pressure and can conduct heat and electricity; element yielding positively charged ions in watery solutions of its
salts.
Ferrous, is an adjective used to indicate the presence of iron. The word is derived from the Latin word ferrum (iron).
Ferrous metals include steel, cast iron (Alloys Fe+C) and alloys of iron with other metals (such as stainless steel).
Non-ferrous is used to indicate metals other than iron and alloys that do not contain an appreciable amount of iron.
Alloy: The mix of two or more substances where at least one of them is a metal. For example Steels, Cast Iron,
Silumin, Duralumin, Brass, Bronze, etc. Pure metals have not practical use in industrial applications due the

Brief Comparison

Ferrous Alloys (Base Fe)

Magnetic (Because the Iron
presence)
Heavy (Density=7.85g/cm3)
Superficial Rust
Color Dark Brown

Non Ferrous Alloys

(Base Al, Cu, etc.)
Non Magnetic
Light
No Superficial Rust
Color (Gray, Silver,
Yellow, Orange)

Identification of metals and Alloys

Internal structure.
Macrostructure: Naked eye or low magnification.
Microstructure: Optical Microscope (400-1500x)
Substructure: Electron Microscope (Scanning or
transmission) up to 1000000x
Crystal Structure: X-ray Diffraction
Electron structure: Spectroscope
Nuclear structure: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR)

Crystalline microstructure in Pure Metals.

Crystalline structure is a result of the an arrangement of atoms during the
solidification process.

a. Simple cube (SC)

b. Body Centered
cube (BCC)

c. Face Centered
Cube (FCC)

Note: In some metals and its alloys this structure changes not only
during the cooling process, and the final structure depends on the
cooling rate determining its final properties. For example Fe and Steels.

Stages during the Solidification in metals.

1. Nucleation: It begins at
foreign particles in melt.

3. Grain Formation: Interface

develops.

2. Crystal growth: Crystals

begin to grow from each.

4. Polycrystalline structure:
Grain growth is limited by
another grain, creating a
boundary between them

Crystalline Structure of Pure Metals.

All atoms are held in place by electromagnetic forces. If an external
force is applied the crystalline network can be broken if such force is
higher than the Yield Strength (YS).

A low strength level only cause a

temporal
deformation
called
(elastic deformation).

A higher strength lever (higher

than the Yield Strength of the
material will cause permanent
deformation
called
(plastic
deformation)
by breaking the
bunds between atoms.

Crystalline Structure of Alloys.

The crystalline structure of an alloy will be reinforced by the presence of

foreign atoms. This explains why in Industrial applications Pure metals
are not used. In other words a particular alloys (Example Steel) is
stronger than the pure metal (Fe).

Metal Properties
Mechanic
al
Properties
Traction
Compress
ion
Bending

Impact
(Toughnes
s)

Technologic
al
Properties
Hardnes
s

Brinell
(HB)
Rockwell
(HR)
Vickers
(HV)

Weldability
Machinability
Malleability
Corrosion
Resistance

Physical
Properties
Melting Point (Tm)
Density ()
Thermal
conductivity ()
Specific heat (C)
Electrical
resistivity ()
Magnetic
permeability ()

Technological Properties:
Are those properties in relation with the Manufacturing Processes or Service.
The valuation is usually qualitative (Good, Regular, Bad). Quantitative Methods
also can be used.

Weldability: The ability of an alloy to be welded well,

using simple procedures.
Machinability: The ability
machining cutting tools.

to

make

parts

using

Malleability: The ability of the metal to keep the shape

after the deformation without cracking in the edges.

Strength-Strain Diagram obtained from the Traction Test.

(MPa)
TS

(MP
a)

STEEL
Uniform S
Elongation

Necki
ng

Al, Cu and its

Alloys

T
S

Fractu
re
YS

S
e

0.2

=E*
0.2 %
elasti
c

plasti
c

(%)

Eng.
Symb
ol

Parameter
name

ISO
Symb
ols

USA
Symbol
s

Proportional Limit

Elastic Limit

Re

Lower Yield Strength

Rp

Ys

y0.2

Conventional Yield
Strength

Rp0.2

Ys0.2

t=u

Ultimate Tensile

Rs

UTS or

(%)

Coupon Test
=

l
L -l
= 1 0
l0
l0

d0d1
d0

d0

d1
l0
l1

1MPa=10.19 kg/m2=145.04 psi

Typical values of Ultimate Tensile Strength, Yield Strength and

Elongation.
TS (MPa)

Ys (MPa)

- (%)

1725

205

65-2

185-285

40-200

60-3

Aluminum

90

35

45

Aluminum
Alloys

90-600

35-550

45-4

220

70

45

140-1310

76-1100

65-3

320

58

30

345-1450

105-1200

60-5

Titanium

275-690

140-550

30-17

Titanium
Alloys

415-1450

344-1380

25-7

Metal or Alloy
Steels
Iron

Copper
Copper Alloys
Nickel
Nickel Alloys

Molybdenum
90-2340
80-2070
40-30
Alloys
Note:
(MPa Mega Pascal
is the unit of strength
in International15-3
System
Magnesium
160-195
90-105
and psi pound per square inches in Imperial System)
Magnesium
240-380
130-305
21-5

How to choose the filler metal for

welding?

The strength of the weld (Filler

Metal) during fusion welding,
should be equal or higher than
the metal to weld on (Base
Metal)

TSFM TSBM
This cannot be possible only
during Brazing or Soldering
since the nature of both FM
and BM are not the same.

(MPa)

TSB

TSF
M

Y
S

(%)

Coupon Test for Impact.

Pendulum
Impact

10mm

m
m
55

10mm

U or V
notch

Hardness Test.
a. Brinell Method.

Coupon Test

Applied
Force

Di
b. Rockwell Method.

Note: Hardness is important

for elements of machines,
not for structures or other.
Indenter

Physical Properties of several Metals and Alloys.

Metal or Alloy

Thermal
Melting point
(Tm)
Density() conductivity ()
(C)
(kg/m3)
W/(mK)
(t=20C)

Aluminum
Aluminum alloys

2712
7700 - 8700

Brass - casting

8400 - 8700

Red Brass
Yellow Brass

8746
8470

Bronze - lead

7700 - 8700

Copper
Gold
Pure iron

8930
19320
6800 - 7800

Cast Iron

7850

Wrought Iron
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Solder 50/50 Pb Sn
Non alloyed and low alloy
steel
Stainless Steel
Tin
Zinc

7750
11340
8800
10490

204
120 - 180

659
462-671
990 - 1025

159
115

1027
930
850 - 1000

385
318
72

58
35.3
89
406

1083
1063
1530
Gray (1370),
Malleable 1360,
White (1370)
1450
327
1453
961

53.6

1480

12.11 - 45.0
63
115

1430-1500
232
419

8885
7850
7480 - 8000
7280
7135

Procedure for Calculation of Weight.

V: Volume (cm3)

: Specific Weight (g/(cm3)

A: Cross Sectional Area (cm )
2

Examples.
Example 1: In a workshop there are 4 cranes (0.5Tn, 1.3Tn, 4Tn and 7Tn).
Which one cannot be use for lifting a steel slab with dimensions
(4000x1000x40mm)?
Solution: Calculating the weight of a steel slab:
Weigh (W)=Volume (V)*(Density)
W=(4M*1M*0.04M)*7850Kg/M3=1256kg=1.3Tn
Consequently cranes for (0.5 and 1.3) shouldnt be used to lift the slab.
Example 2: Find out the weight of a similar slab made out of Aluminum.
W=(4M*1M*0.04M)*2712Kg/M3=433kg=0.4Tn
This can be lift with the (0.5Tn crane).
Example 3: How many times steel weigh more than Aluminum?
Solution:
7850/2712=2.89=2.9 times.

Steels Classification Chart

Steels = Fe + C where (C
2.14%)
Non Alloy
Alloy
Steels
Steel
(Plain Carbon)
Low Alloy
Several types
Steels
AE < 5%
Si, Si-Mn, etc
Low
Carbon
C <
Cr0.3%
Mo
Medium
Medium Alloy
Cr-MoCarbon
5% AE
V
0.3% C <
<10%
Ni
High0.5%
Carbon
(cryogenic)
0.5% C <
Ni
1%
(Maraging)
High
Cr-Ni (Stainless Steel
Ultra High
Alloy
Cr12%)
Carbon
AE
Mn
1.0% C
10%
(Hadfield)
1.7%
Mild Steel: Non Alloy and low carbon steel with C from 0.16 to 0.29%, which is used in 85% of all steel applications in the
world.

Application of Alloys
Structures: Bridges, Buildings, Decks,
Cranes, Pipelines, Vessels, etc.
Elements of Machines: Pistons, Bearings,
Shaft, Levers, etc. Parts that move.
Devices: Appliances, Power tools,
Furniture, and other.
Tools: Pliers, Screwdrivers, etc.
Other: Pipes, Tubes, Fittings, Cables, etc.

Type
of
alloy

Grade

LCNA
(C<0.3%)

Stee
ls

Criteria of use
Good Weldability
Good Malleability
Good Machinability

For manufacturing Elements of

machine.
MCNA
For Machining + Heat Treatment to
0.3C<0.5%
change superficial hardness.
Regular Weldability (Not for
manufacturing welding)
To withstand deformation and
HCNA
wearing.
C0.5%
Bad Weldability (Not for welding at
all)
LCLA
Similar to LCNA but more Tensile
C<0.3%;
strength,
AE<5%
Resistant to marine corrosion.
LCMA
Thermal Resistance and Thermal
C<0.3%
stability (Cr, Mo)
5%AE<10
Low temperature Applications
%
MCLA
Similar to MCNA but more hardness
and
after heat treatment.
MCMA
LCHA
(Stainless)

Rust Free
Luxury
Antibacterial

LCHA

Elements that get harder with

Type of
supply

Examples

Bars, Flats,
Sheet Metal,
Beams, Pipes

Structures;
Elements of machines
were hardness is not an
issue.
Devices

Bars

Elements of Machines
where hardness is
important.

Bars

Tools
Springs

Bars, Flats,
Sheet Metal,
Beams, Pipes

Structures.

Pipes

Pipelines

Pipes, plates

Pipelines
Special equipment.

Bars

Tools
Elements of machines

Pipes, Flats,
Sheet metal

Casting

Food containers
Chemical industry
equipment.
Medical equipment
Tracks and rolls of
caterpillars and similar

Influence of the carbon content in the Mechanical

Properties of the steel.
Elongation
(%)
30

Strength
(MPa)
1000
TS

500

15

YS

0
0

0.5

%C

Influence of the Alloy Elements in Hardness and

Impact) in Steels.

Examples of classification of steels:

1.

An steel with the following chemical

composition:
C=0.15%; P<0.002%, S<0.001%
Will be classified as Low Carbon Non Alloy
(LCNA) Steel .

Notes:
Sulphur (S) and Phosphor (P) always are impurities in
steels (They are not Alloy Elements).
Since C0.15%, such steel is also called Mild Steel.
Low Carbon Steels have GOOD WELDABILITY and
MALEABILITY.

Example 2:
2.

An steel
composition:

with

the

following

chemical

C=0.15%; Mn=1%, Si=2.0% P<0.002%,

S<0.001%
It Will be classified as:
Low Carbon and Low Alloy (LCLA) Steel with 3.0 % of
Alloy Elements.
LCLA Steels
Weldability.

usually

have

GOOD

or

ACEPTABLE

Example 3:
3.

An steel with
composition:

the

following

chemical

C=0.035%; Cr=18% and Ni=8%

Will be classified as:
Extra Low Carbon High Alloy (LCHA) Steel with (18 +
8)=26% of Alloy Elements. This is a typical Stainless
Steel.

Identification of American Steels

According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of
Automotive Engineering (SAE) Steels are identified as follows:
A Four Digits code for Non Alloy, Low Alloy and Medium Alloy Steels. In
this case the last two digits represents the carbon content in percentage
while the first two digits the subgroup of steels according the alloy
system and application.
A three digit code for High Alloy Steels (AISI) or five digits (SAE) where
the last two of the five represents the carbon content.
Notes:
1. In the following tables XX represents the carbon content in
percentage.
2. American steels are used worldwide.
3. Some countries like Japan use same nomenclature.
4. The most of European countries follow a totally different
nomenclature for example (Germany, Italy, Russia, France and
England).

Identification of NA, LA and MA Steels.

10XX
11XX
Carbon Steels

Manganese Steel
Nickel Steels
Nickel-Chromium
Steels
Molybdenum
Steels
ChromiumMolybdenum
Steels
Nickel-ChromiumMolybdenum
Steels
NickelMolybdenum
Steels

15XX
13XX
23XX
25XX
31XX
32XX
33XX
34XX
40XX
44XX

Plain carbon, Mn 1.00% max

Resulfurized free machining
Resulfurized - Rephosphorized free
machining
Plain carbon, Mn 1.00-1.65%
Mn 1.75%
Ni 3.50%
Ni 5.00%
Ni 1.25%, Cr .65-.80%
Ni 1.75%, Cr 1.07%
Ni 3.50%, Cr 1.50-1.57%
Ni 3.00%, Cr .77%
Mo .20-.25%
Mo .40-.52%

41XX

Cr .50-.95%, Mo .12-.30%

43XX

Ni 1.82%, Cr .50-.80%, Mo .25%

47XX

Ni 1.05%, Cr .45%, Mo .20-.35%

46XX

Ni .85-1.82%, Mo .20-.25%

48XX

Ni 3.50%, Mo .25%

12XX

Chromium
steels

Chromiumvanadium
steels
Tungstenchromium
steels
Nickelchromiummolybdenu
m steels
Siliconmanganese
steels
Nickelchromiummolybdenu
m steels

50XX
51XX
50XXX
51XXX

Cr .27-.65%
Cr .80-1.05%
Cr .50%, C 1.00% min
Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min

52XXX

Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min

61XX

Cr .60-.95%, V .10-.15%

72XX

W 1.75%, Cr .75%

81XX
86XX
87XX
88XX

Ni
Ni
Ni
Ni

.30%,
.55%,
.55%,
.55%,

Cr
Cr
Cr
Cr

.40%,
.50%,
.50%,
.50%,

Mo
Mo
Mo
Mo

.12%
.20%
.25%
.35%

92XX

Si 1.40-2.00%, Mn .65-.85%, Cr
0-.65%

93XX
94XX
97XX
98XX

Ni 3.25%, Cr 1.20%, Mo .12%

Ni .45%, Cr .40%, Mo .12%
Ni .55%, Cr .20%, Mo .20%
Ni 1.00%, Cr .80%, Mo .25%

Identification of High Alloy Steels.

Stainless Steels
ChromiumManganese
Nickel Steels
ChromiumNickel Steels
Chromium Steels
Chromium Steels

SAE
302xx

AISI
2YY

303xx
514xx
515xx

3YY
4YY
5YY

In the most of the European countries to identify high alloy steels the
chemical element is specified and after the amount except when is 1% for
example:
08Cr18Ni10T is a steel containing: 0.08%C, 18%Cr, 10%Ni and 1%Ti
06Cr12Ni25 is a steel containing: 0.06%C, 12%Cr, 25%Ni

Classification and application of Cast Irons.

Cast Iron (C
1.7%)
Non alloyed

Malleable

Gray

Ferritic

Whiteheart
Blackheart
Perlitics

Ferritic Perlitics

Vermicular
or Compact

Alloyed

Spheroidal
graphite (SG).

White

Ordinary
ADI

Perlitic

Note: Cast Iron is obtain out of

Casting process (in a mold)
and it is use for parts that have
to withstand vibrations and
compression loads.

Corrosion

High
Temperature

(Gray)

((Gray))

Ni
Si

Ni
Si
Al
Whites

Cr

Abrasive
Wear with
Impact

Antifriction

(Whites)

(Gray)

Cr
Cr-Ni
Cr-Mo

Ni
Si

Applications of Copper Alloys.

Copper
Alloys.
Brasses (Cu+Zn)
Yellow (Cu-Zn)
Leaded (Cu-Zn-Pb)
Tin (Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb)

Bronzes (Cu+Sn).
Phosphor (Cu-Sn-P)
Lead Phosphor (Cu-Sn-Pb-P)
Aluminum (Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn)
Silicon (Cu-Si-Sn)

Note: Cooper alloys, are mainly used in pipes, tubes, valves, fittings,
antennas and in some cases friction bearings.

Identification of Copper Alloys.

Classification of copper alloys is determined by the Unified Numbering System (UNS),developed by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the Copper Development Association (CDA).
The designation system uses five-digit numbers preceded by the prefix letter C.
The numbers from C10000 through C79999 define the wrought copper alloys.

Generic name

Major components

UNS designation
number

Copper (Technically Pure)

>= 99.3% Cu

C10100C15999

High-copper alloys

> 96% Cu but <99.3% Cu

C16000C19999

Yellow Brasses

Cu-Zn

C21000C28999

Leaded Brasses

Cu-Zn-Pb

C30000C39999

Tin Brasses

Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb

C40000C49999

Phosphor Bronzes

Cu-Sn-P

C50000C52999

Lead Phosphor Bronzes

Cu-Sn-Pb-P

C53000C54999

Copper-Phosphorous alloys

Cu-P, Cu-P-Ag

C55000C55299

Copper-Silver-Zinc Alloys

Cu-Ag-Zn

C55300C60799

Aluminum Bronzes

Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn

C60800C64699

Silicon Bronzes and Silicon

Brasses

Cu-Si-Sn

C64700C66199

Other copper-zinc alloys

Cu-Zn-

C66200C69999

Copper-Nickels (Copper-Nickel-Iron Alloys)

Spinodal Bronzes

Cu-Ni-Fe
Cu-Ni-Sn

C70000C73499

Nickel Silvers

Cu-Ni-Zn

C73500C79999

Brasses

Bronzes

The numbers from C80000 through C99999 define the cast copper alloys.
Generic name
Coppers
High-Copper Alloys
Brasses

Bronzes

Red Brasses and Leaded

Red Brasses
Yellow Brasses

Major components
>= 99.3% Cu
> 96% Cu but
<99.3% Cu
Cu-Sn-Zn
Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb
Cu-Zn

UNS designation
number
C80000C81399
C81400C83299
C83300C84999
C85000C85999

Manganese Bronzes and

Cu-Zn-Mn-Fe-Pb
Leaded Manganese Bronzes

C86000C86999

Silicon Bronzes and Silicon

Brasses

Cu-Zn-Si

C87000C87999

Copper-Bismuth
Copper-Bismuth-Selenium
alloys

Cu-Bi
Cu-Bi-Se

C88000C89999

Tin Bronzes and Leaded Tin Cu-Sn-Zn

Bronzes
Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb
Nickel-Tin Bronzes
Cu-Ni-Sn-Zn-Pb

C90000C94500
C94600C94999

Aluminum Bronzes
Copper-Nickels (Copper-Nickel-Iron Alloys)
Spinodal Bronzes
Nickel Silvers

Cu-Al-Ni-Fe
Cu-Ni-Fe
Cu-Ni-Sn
Cu-Ni-Zn-Pb-Sn

C95000C95999

Copper-Lead Alloys

Cu-Pb

C98000C98999

Special alloys

Cu-

C99000C99999

C96000C96999
C97000C97999

Conclusions.
In industry Pure metals has not
use, due the low properties. Alloys
offer better properties due the
inclusion of foreign atoms in the
crystalline structure.
The chemical composition have
influence
in
the
Mechanical,
Technological
and
Physical
properties.
The most common alloys in our

Internet References

Crystalline Structure.
NTD Resource Center
Wikipedia Encyclopedia
How Stuffworks
AISI / SAE Steel Identification Nu
mber
Stainless Steels International Sta
ndards.