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DESIGN 1
MEC 531
Part B:
Design for Strength
By:
NURZAKI IKHSAN
Chapter 2:
Design for Strength
Chapter Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Static Strength
Failure theories
Stress Concentration
Fatigue Strength.
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics
Static strength
In engineering practices, there are many cases
in which machine members are subjected to
combined stresses due to simultaneous action
of either tensile or compressive stresses
combined with shear stresses. E.g. propeller
shaft, crankshaft.
Understanding the basic principal stresses are
important to determine the yield strength.
Static strength
Free Body Diagram (FBD)
Simplifying a body by isolating each element with
its physical attributes and showing all forces that
are acting on it to be in an equilibrium state.
Static strength
Static strength
Static strength
Four types of internal loading
Normal force, N.
This force act perpendicular to the area
Shear Force, V.
This force lies in the plane of the area (parallel)
Torsional Moment or Torque, T.
This torque is developed when the external loads tend
to twist one segment of the body with respect to the
other
Bending Moment, M.
This moment is developed when the external loads
tend to bend the body. Normal force, N. This force act
perpendicular to the area.
Static strength
Normal Stress
The intensity of the force acting normal to A
Fz
z lim
A0 A
Static strength
Shear Stress:
Stress that acts parallel to the surface of a material
creating shear.
The intensity of the force acting tangent to A
Shear
Stress
Single
V
V
2
A r
Double
V ( F / 2)
A r2
Static
strength
The single lower
arm for
suspension
system of race-car prototype is pinned
Review 1
at C and supported Exercise
by the shock
absorber BD. The pin
B has a
Mpa.
If
this
suspension
Static strength
Normal Strain
Deformation of a body by changes in length of line
segments and the changes in the angles between.
avg
s 's
Shear Strain
The change in angle between two line segments that were
originally perpendicular
nt '
2
Static strength
Torque:
Moment that tends to a twist a member about its longitudinal
axis.
Cross-sections for hollow and solid
circular shafts remain plain and
undistorted because a circular shaft
is axisymmetric.
Cross-sections of noncircular (nonaxisymmetric) shafts are distorted
when subjected to torsion.
Static strength
max
Tc
T
and
J
J
Solid Shaft
The polar moment of inertia J can
be determined using an area
element in the form a differential
ring, thus:
4
J c
2
Tubular shaft
The polar moment of inertia J can
be determined by substrating J for
a shaft radius ci from that
determined for a shaft of radius c0,
thus;
4 4
co ci
2
Static strength
Exercise Review 2
The motor delivers a torque of 50 N.m to the shaft AB. This
torque is transmitted to shaft CD using the gears at E and F.
Determine the equilibrium torque T on shaft CD and the
maximum shear stress in each shaft. The bearings B, C, and D
allow free rotation of the shafts.
Static strength
Poissons Ratio
Linear Elastic
Material
Behavior
x
v
y
Static strength
Bending Moment
Rotational forces within the beam that cause bending. At
any point within a beam, the Bending Moment is the sum
of: each external force multiplied by the distance that is
perpendicular to the direction of the force.
The maximum normal stress due to bending,
Mc M
I
S
Static strength
Principal stresses occur on the principal planes of stress with
zero shearing stresses.
max, min
x y
tan 2 p
x y
2 xy
x y
2
xy
x for
ave
Maximum shearing stress occurs
max R
x y
y
tan 2 s x
2 xy
2
xy
Static strength
Exercise Review 4
The engine crane is used to support the engine,which has a
weight of 6kN
.Draw the shear and moment diagrams of the boom ABCwhen
it is in the horizontal position shown.
Stress Concentration
Stress Concentration
Stress Concentration
Stress Concentration
Stress Concentration
A number of methods are available to reduce stress
concentration in machine parts:
1. Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may
change gradually.
2. Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used.
3. If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number
of small notches rather than a long one. This reduces the
stress concentration to a large extent.
4. If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it
is preferable to provide a narrow notch than a wide notch.
5. Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided.
Stress Concentration
Failure theories
Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more
pieces; has become permanently distorted, thus ruining
its geometry; has had its reliability downgraded; or has
had its function compromised, whatever the reason.
Failure theories
Ductile failure
A
ductile
material
deforms
significantly before fracturing.
(extensive plastic deformation
and
energy
absorption
(toughness) before fracture
Ductility is measured by %
elongation at the fracture point.
Materials with 5% or more
elongation are considered ductile.
Imagine that the matrix of
circles shown below represent
an isotropic material.
Ductile failure
As the material is being
loaded it stretches linearly. As
the material is being pulled
further apart, its resistance
becomes greater.
The material continues to stretch
linearly until the yield stress of
the material is reached.
At this point the material
begins to behave differently.
Planes of maximum shear
exist in the material at 45,
and the material begins to
slide along these planes.
Ductile failure
The
sliding
between
relative planes of material
allow the specimen to
deform noticeably without
any increase in stress. We
call this a yield of the
material.
Brittle failure
Brittle failure
Failure theories
There is no universal theory of failure for the general case of
material properties and stress state. Instead, over the years
several hypotheses have been formulated and tested, leading to
todays accepted practices most designers do.
The generally accepted theories are:
Ductile materials (yield criteria)
Failure theories
Ductile Materials -Maximum-Shear-Stress
Theory
The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts
that
yielding
begins
whenever
the
maximum shear stress in any element
equals or exceeds the maximum shear
stress in a tension test specimen of the
same material when that specimen begins
to yield.
The MSS theory is also referred to as the
Tresca or aGuest
Assuming
plane theory.
stress problem with A B, there are three cases to
consider
Failure theories
Ductile Materials-Distortion-Energy Theory
The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs
when the distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or
exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield
in simple tension or compression of the same material.
For unit volume subjected to any three-dimensional stress
state designated by the stresses 1, 2, and 3, effective
stress is usually called the von Mises stress, as
Failure theories
Ductile Materials-Distortion-Energy Theory
Consider a case of pure shear xy ,where for plane
stress
x = y = 0. For yield
Failure theories
Failure theories
Failure of Ductile Materials Summary
Either
the
maximum-shear-stress
theory or the distortion-energy theory
is acceptable for design and analysis of
materials that would fail in a ductile
manner.
For design purposes the maximumshear-stress theory is easy, quick to
use, and conservative.
If the problem is to learn why a part
failed, then the distortion-energy
theory may be the best to use.
For ductile materials with unequal yield
strengths, Syt in tension and Syc in
compression, the Mohr theory is the
best available.
Failure theories
Brittle Materials-Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
The
maximum-normal-stress
(MNS)
theory states that failure occurs
whenever one of the three principal
stresses equals or exceeds the
strength.
For a general stress state in the ordered
form 1 2 3. This theory then
predicts that failure occurs whenever
Failure theories
Failure of Brittle Materials Summary
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue failures may contribute in 2 areas of failure:
1. Due to progressive development of crack.
2. Due to sudden fracture.
Cracks are initiated at the discontinuity, for example:
Change in cross-section.
A key way.
A hole.
Fatigue failure is quite different from a static brittle
fracture as it
arise from three stages of development.
1. Crack initiation.
2. Crack propagation.
3. Final catastrophic failure.
Fatigue Strength
Stage 1: Crack initiation
Fatigue Strength
initiation
propagation
fracture
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Strength
number of cycles
material constants
: cycle to failure
where
= surface condition modification factor
= size modification factor
= load modification factor
= temperature modification factor
= reliability factor
= miscellaneous-effects modification factor
= rotary-beam test specimen endurance limit
Loading Factor :
The axial and torsional loadings results in different endurance
limit than that of a standard rotating-bending test. The load
factor applies to other loading conditions as
Temperature Factor :
If only tensile-strength data are available, polynomial
fitting to the data could provide the temperature factor
at various temperature values.
If the rotating-beam endurance limit is known at room
temperature, we have
such that the crack growth occurs when the energy release
rate from applied loading is greater than the rate of energy
for crack growth.