Professional Documents
Culture Documents
for
Chapter6
of
FundamentalsofAtmosphericModeling
2ndEdition
MarkZ.Jacobson
DepartmentofCivil&EnvironmentalEngineering
StanfordUniversity
Stanford,CA943054020
jacobson@stanford.edu
March10,2005
ODEsandPDEs
Ordinarydifferentialequation(ODE)
Equationwithoneindependentvariable
Partialdifferentialequation(PDE)
Equationwithmorethanoneindependentvariable
Order
Highestderivativeofanequation
Degree
Highestpolynomialvalueofthehighestderivative
Initialvalueproblem
Conditionsareknownatoneendofdomainbutnotother
Boundaryvalueproblem
Conditionsareknownatbothendsofdomain
ODEsandPDEs
OperatorSplittingScheme
Timeinterval1
Timeinterval2
Dynamics
Dynamics
Transport
Transport
Gaschemistry
Gaschemistry
Fig.6.1
OperatorSplitting
Operatorsplitadvectiondiffusionequations
N (uN)
N
+
K h,xx =0
t
x
x
x
(6.16.3)
N (vN)
N
+
K h,yy =0
t
y
y
y
N (wN)
N
+
K h,zz =0
t
z
z
z
Operatorsplitexternalsource/sinkterms
N
=
t
Ne,t
Rn
n=1
(6.4)
FiniteDifferenceApproximation
Replacementofcontinuousdifferentialoperator(d)withdiscretedifferenceanalog()writtenintermsofafinitenumberofvaluesalongatemporalorspatialdirection.
Examples:
dN
N
dt
t
N
N
x
x
u
u
x
x
FiniteDifferenceExample
First,replacecontinuousfunctionuxwithafinitenumberofvaluesinthexdirection.
u
ux
x
ui1 ui u i+1
ui+2
i1 i i+1
xi1 xi xi+1
xi+2
Fig.6.2
FiniteDifferenceApproximation
Second,definedifferencesofduatpointxi
> ui =ui +1 ui1 centraldifference
> ui =ui +1 ui
forwarddifference
> ui =ui ui 1
backwarddifference
Centraldifferenceapproximationtotangentslopeatxi (6.10)
u ui ui +1 ui1
=
x xi xi +1 xi1
ux
x
ui1 ui u i+1
ui+2
i1 i i+1
xi1 xi xi+1
xi+2
FiniteDifferenceApproximations
Central(AC),forward(BC),andbackward(AB)approximationstoslopeoftangent
atpointB
x
xi1 xi xi+1
Nx
x
Fig.6.3
TaylorSeriesExpansion
Taylorseriesexpansionatpointx+x
(6.11)
4
Nx 1 2 2N x 1 3 3 Nx 1
4 Nx
Nx+x =Nx +x
+ x
+ x
+ x
+...
2
3
4
x 2
6
24
Taylorseriesexpansionatpointxx
(6.12)
4N
Nx 1 2 2N x 1 3 3N x 1
4
x ...
Nxx =Nx x
+ x
x
+
x
2
3
4
x 2
6
24
x
x
x
N
x
xi1 xi xi+1
Nx
x
FiniteDifferenceApproximations
SumtheTaylorseriesexpansions
2 =
x
(6.13)
2N
2
x
4N
1
4
x +...
+
x
x2 12
x4
(6.14)
+O(x2 )
Truncationerror(neglect2ndordertermsandhigher)
4N
1
x ...
O(x2 ) = x2
4
12
x
(6.15)
2ndordercentraldifferenceapprox.of2ndderivative
2N x Nx+x 2Nx +Nxx
2
x
x2
(6.16)
FiniteDifferenceApproximations
SubtracttheTaylorseriesexpansions
(6.17)
3
N x 1 3 N x
Nx+x Nxx =2x
+ x
+...
3
x
3
x
Rearrange
N x N x+x N xx
=
+O(x2)
x
2x
Truncationerror
3N
1 2
x ...
O(x ) = x
6
x3
2
2ndordercentraldifferenceapprox.of1stderivative
N x Nx+x N xx Ni+1 Ni1
=
x
2x
2x
(6.18)
(6.19)
(6.20)
FiniteDifferenceApproximations
FirsttwotermsofTaylorseries
1storderforwarddifferenceapprox.of1stderivative
N x Nx+x N x Ni+1 Ni
=
x
x
x
(6.21)
1storderbackwarddifferenceapprox.of1stderivative (6.22)
N x Nx Nxx Ni Ni1
=
x
x
x
DifferencingTimeDerivative
Central,forward,backwarddifferenceapproximations (6.23)
Nt Nt+h Nth
t
2h
Nt Nt+h Nt
t
h
Nt Nt Nth
t
h
Consistency,Convergence
Convergenceoffinitedifferenceanalog
N
N
= lim
x x 0 x
(6.6)
Consistencyoffinitedifferenceanalog
N
lim T.E.
=0
x
x 0
(6.7)
Convergenceofoverallsolution
(6.8)
lim
x,t 0
Ne,x,t N f,x,t =0
Stability
Stability
t
Conditionallystable:Stableforlimitedtimesteprange
Unconditionallystable:Stableforalltimesteps
Unconditionallyunstable:Unstableforalltimesteps
Anunconditionallyunstableschemecannotbeconvergentoverall,butindividualfinitedifferenceanalogsinanunstableschememayconvergeandmaybeconsistent.
Inotherwords,consistencyandconvergenceofindividualanalogsdonotguaranteestability.
Stabilityisguaranteedifaschemeisconvergentoverallanditsfinitedifferenceanalogsareconvergentandconsistent.
(6.9)
NumericalDiffusion,Dispersion
Numericallydiffusivescheme:
Peaksspreadartificiallyacrossgridcells
Numericallydispersive(oscillatory)scheme:
Wavesappearaheadoforbehindpeaks
Unboundedscheme:
Transportedvaluesartificiallyriseabovethelargestexistingvalueorfallbelowthesmallestexistingvalueindomain.
Nonmonotonicscheme:
Gradientsarenotpreservedduringtransport
HighOrderApproximations
FinitedifferenceapproximationofmN/xm
Orderofderivative=m
Approximationexpandedacrossqdiscretenodes
Minimumnumberofnodes=m+1
Maximumorderofapproximation=qm
Example
Orderofderivative:
Numberofnodes:
>Orderofapproximation:
m=1
q=5
qm=4
HighOrderApproximations
Gridspacingwhereq=5.Derivativeistakenatx3.
Fig.6.4
x
x 1
x2
x3
x 4
x5
Distancebetweentwonodes
xi =xi+1 xi
Approximationtothemthderivativeacrossqnodes
mN
x
(6.24)
i =1
HighOrderApproximations
Approximationtothemthderivativeacrossqnodes
mN
x
(6.24)
iNi
i =1
Taylorseriesexpansionforeachnodeaboutpointx* (6.25)
2
3
N* 1
2 N* 1
3 N*
Ni =N* +(xi x* )
+ (xi x* )
+ (xi x* )
+...
2
3
x 2
6
x
x
Combine(6.24)with(6.25)andgatherterms
mN
x
i =1
i =1
i=1
iNi = iN* +
N*
i (xi x* )
+
x
i=1
(6.26)
2
1
2 N*
i (xi x* )
2 +...
2
x
Redefine
q
i =1
N*
2N*
i Ni =B0 N* +B1
+B2
2 +...
x
x
Bn =
i=1
(6.27)
i
1
n
(xi x* )
n!
HighOrderApproximations
q
Bn =
i=1
1
n
i (xi x* )
n!
forn=0q1
(6.28)
Multiply(6.28)throughbyn!andsetmatrix
1
1
1
x x
(x2 x* )
(x3 x* )
( 1 *)
2
2
(x x )2
x
x
x
x
(
)
(
)
2
*
3
*
1 *
:
:
:
q1
q1
q1
x
x
x
x
x
x
(
)
(
)
(
)
1 *
2
*
3
*
SetBn=0foralln,exceptn=m
SetBn=1whenn=m
...
...
(6.29)
1
0!B
1
0
(xq x* ) 1!B
2
1
2
... (xq x* ) 3 = 2!B2
:
:
:
q1
q1)!Bq1
... (xq x* )
q (
2ndOrderCentralDiff.Approx.
Example
Findsecondordercentraldifferenceapprox.toN/x
Orderofderivative:
Orderofapproximation:
>Numberofnodes:
m=1
qm=2
q=3
Setmatrix
(6.32)
1
1
1 i1 0
x
0
x
i =1
2
2
x
)
0
(
x
)
i+1 0
2ndOrderCentralDiff.Approx.
Solvematrix
i =0
1
i1 =
2x
1
i+1 =
2x
Applythe'sto(6.24)
N
1N1 +2N2 +3N3 =i 1Ni1 +i Ni +i+1Ni +1
x
Substitute'stoobtaincentraldifferenceapprox.
N Ni +1Ni 1
x
2x
Table6.2(c)
1stOrderBackwardDiff.Approx.
Example
Findfirstorderbackwarddifferenceapprox.toN/x
Orderofderivative:
Orderofapproximation:
>Numberofnodes:
m=1
qm=1
q=2
Setmatrix
(6.30)
1i 1 0
1
x 0 =1
1stOrderBackwardDiff.Approx.
Solvematrix
1
i1 =
x
1
i =
x
Applythe'sto(6.24)
N
i1Ni 1 +i Ni
x
Substitute'stoobtainbackwarddifferenceapprox.
N Ni Ni1
x
x
Table6.2(a)
2ndOrderBackwardDiff.Approx.
Example
Findsecondorderbackwarddifferenceapprox.toN/x
Orderofderivative:
Orderofapproximation:
>Numberofnodes:
Setmatrix
Solve
m=1
qm=2
q=3
1
1
1i2 0
2x
=1
x
0
i1
(2x)2 (x)2 0 i 0
N Ni 2 4Ni1 +3Ni
x
2x
(6.32)
(Table6.2d)
HigherOrderApproximations
Thirdorderbackwarddifference(m=1,q=4)
Table6.2(f)
N Ni 2 6Ni1 +3Ni +2Ni +1
x
6x
Thirdorderforwarddifference(m=1,q=4)
Table6.2(g)
N 2Ni 1 3Ni +6Ni+1 Ni+2
x
6x
Fourthorderbackwarddifference(m=1,q=5)
Table6.2(i)
N Ni 3 +6Ni 2 18Ni1 +10Ni +3Ni+1
x
12x
Fourthorderforwarddifference(m=1,q=5)
Table6.2(j)
N 3Ni1 10Ni +18Ni+1 6Ni+2 +Ni+3
x
12x
FourthOrderApproximations
Discretizearoundfurthestcell
Fourthorderbackwarddiff.scheme(m=1,q=5)
Table6.2(k)
1
1
1
1i4 0
1
4x
3x
2x
x
0i3 1
2
2
2
2
0i2 = 0
(4x) (3x) (2x) (x)
(4x)3 (3x)3 (2x)3 (x)3 0 0
i1
4
4
4
4
(4x) (3x) (2x) (x)
0 i 0
x
12x
Fourthorderforwarddifference(m=1,q=5)
Table6.2(l)
N 25Ni 48Ni+1 +36Ni+2 16Ni+3 +3Ni +4
x
12x
FourthOrderCentralDiff.Approx.
FourthordercentraldifferenceofN/x(m=1,q=5) (6.33)
1
1
2x
x
2
2
(
2x
)
(
x
)
(2x)3 (x)3
4
4
(2x) (x)
1
1
1 i2 0
0 x
2x i1 1
2
2
0 (x) (2x) i =0
3
3
0 (x)
(2x) i+1 0
4
4
0 (x) (2x) i+2 0
Table6.2(h)
x
12x
FourthOrderCentralDiff.Approx.
Fourthordercentraldifferenceof2N/x2(m=2,q=5)
1
1
2x
x
2
2
(2x) (x)
(2x)3 (x)3
4
4
(2x) (x)
1
1
1 i2 0
0 x
2x i1 0
2
2
0 (x) (2x) i =2
0 (x)3 (2x)3 i+1 0
4
4
0 (x) (2x) i+2 0
Table6.2(n)
2N
AdvectionDiffusionEqn.Solutions
Speciescontinuityequationinwesteastdirection
N (uN)
N
+
K h,xx =0
t
x
x
x
CFLstabilitycriterionforadvection
h <xmin umax
Example:
xmin=5km,|umax|=20m/s>h=250s(Hydrostaticmodel)
xmin=5km,|umax|=346m/s>h=14.5s(Nonhydrostaticmodel)
Stabilitycriterionfordiffusion
2
h <xmin K max
Example:
zmin=20m,Kmax=50m2/s>h=8s(inthevertical)
(6.1)
FTCSSolution
Forwardintime,centeredinspace(FTCS)solution
(6.35)
1storderapproximationintime
UnconditionallyunstableforK=0,largeK;otherwiseconditionallystable
=0
AdvectionDiffusionEqn.Solutions
Implicitsolution:1storderapproximationintime
Unconditionallystableforallu,K
(6.36)
(6.37)
(6.38)
2K
Bi =1+h 2
x i
u
K
Di =h
2
2x x i+1
AdvectionDiffusionEqn.Solutions
Rearrangeandwriteintridiagonalmatrixform
0
B1 D1 0
A B D
2
2 0
2
0 A3 B3 D3
0 0 A B
4
4
:
:
:
:
0 0 0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
(6.39)
0
0
0
0 N2,t N2,th
0
0
0
0 N3,t N3,th
0
0
0
0 N4,t N4,th
:
:
:
:
: :
0
BI 2 DI 2
0 NI 2,t NI 2,th
0
AI 1 BI 1 DI 1NI 1,t N I 1,th
D N
0
AI
BI NI,t NI ,th
I
I
+
1
,t
TridiagonalMatrixSolution
Matrixdecomposition:
(6.40)
D1
1 =
B1
Di
i =
Bi +Ai i 1
i=2..I
R1
1 =
B1
Ri Ai i1
i =
Bi +Ai i1
i=2..I
Matrixbacksubstitution:
NI ,t = I
(6.41)
Ni,t = i +i Ni+1,t
i=I1..1,1
TridiagonalMatrixSolution
Matrixforsolutionforperiodicboundaryconditions (6.42)
0 ...
0
0
A1 N1,t N1,th
B1 D1 0
A B D
N2,t N2,th
0
...
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0 N3,t N3,th
0 A3 B3 D3 ...
0 0 A
N4,t N4,th
B
...
0
0
0
4
4
=
:
:
:
:
:
:
: :
:
0 0
0
0 ... BI 2 DI 2
0 N I 2,t NI 2,th
0
0 ... AI 1 BI 1 DI 1 NI 1,t NI 1,th
0 0
D
NI ,t N I,th
0
0
0
...
0
A
B
I
I
I
ValuesatnodeIareadjacenttothoseatnode1
CrankNicolsonScheme
CrankNicolsonform
(6.44)
(uN)i+1,th (uN)i1,th
Ni,t Ni,th (uN)i+1,t (uN)i1,t
+c
+(1c )
h
2x
2x
x
x
c =CrankNicolsonparameter
=0.5>CrankNicolsonsolution(unconditionallystableallu,K)
2ndorderapproximationintime
=0.>explicit(FTCS)solution
=1>implicitsolution
CrankNicolsonScheme
Tridiagonalform
(6.45)
Ai Ni1,t +Bi Ni,t +Di Ni+1,t =Ei Ni1,th +Fi Ni,th +Gi Ni+1,th
u
K
Ai =ch
+ 2
2x x i1
u
K
Ei =(1 c)h
+ 2
2x x i 1
2K
Bi =1+ch 2
x i
2K
Fi =1(1c )h 2
x i
u
K
Di = ch
2
2x x i+1
u
K
Gi =1
(
2
c)h
2x x i+1
LeapfrogScheme
2ndorderapproximationintime
(6.48)
UnconditionallyunstableforallnonzeroK;conditionallystableforlinearequationswhenK=0;unstablefornonlinearequations
Ni,t Ni,t2h
2h
MatsunoScheme
1storderapproximationintime
ConditionallystableforalluwhenK=0orsmall;
unconditionallyunstableforlargeK
Predictionstep
Ni,estNi,th
h
(6.49)
Correctionstep
Ni,t Ni,th
h
(6.49)
Ni+1,est2Ni,est +Ni1,est
2
=0
HeunScheme
2ndorderapproximationintime
(6.51)
UnconditionallyunstableforalluwhenK=0andKlarge;conditionallystableforothervaluesofK
Ni,t Ni,th
h
2
2
2x
2
x
=0
2
2
2x
2
x
PredictionstepsameasfirstMatsunostep
AdamsBashforthScheme
2ndorderapproximationintime
(6.52)
UnconditionallyunstableforalluwhenK=0andKlarge;conditionallystableforothervaluesofK.
+ K
=0
2
2
2x
2
x
FourthOrderRungeKuttaScheme
Conditionallystable
k1 k2 k3 k4
Ni,t =Ni,th + + + +
6 3
3 6
(6.535)
2
2x
x
k1
Ni,est1 =Ni,th +
2
(uthNest1)
(uth Nest1 )i1
Ni+1,est1 2Ni,est1 +Ni1,est1
i
+
1
k2 =h
+K
2
2x
i ,
est
FourthOrderRungeKuttaScheme
(uth Nest2 )
(uth Nest2 )i 1
Ni +1,est2 2Ni,est2 +Ni 1,est2
i
+
1
k3 =h
+K
2
2x
2
2x
ConvergenceofFourSchemes
1
10
10
st
order
nd
10
order
Error
Error
th
10
th
RungeKutta
AdamsBashforth
order
Matsuno
10
ForwardEuler
11
10
0.1
10
Timestep(s)
(KetefianandJacobson2004b)
Fig.6.5
FourthOrderinSpaceSolution
Centraldifferenceimplicitsolution
(6.56)
Ni,t Ni,th (uN)i2,t 8(uN)i1,t +8(uN)i+1,t (uN)i +2,t
+
h
12x
=0
WriteinCrankNicolsonandpentadiagonalform
VariableGridSpacing,Winds
Secondordercentraldifferenceofadvectionterm
(6.57)
(uN)
=a,i1(uN)i1 +a,i (uN)i +a,i+1(uN)i +1
x
Solvematrixequationtoobtaincoefficients
(6.58)
a,i1 0
1
1
1
( i xi 1) 0 (xi+1 xi ) a,i = 1
x
2
2
x x
0
x
x
(
)
(
)
i
i 1
i+1
i a,i+1 0
VariableGridSpacing,Winds
Solvematrixequationtoobtaincoefficients
(xi +1 xi )
a,i1 =
( xi xi1)(xi +1 xi1)
(xi+1 xi ) (xi xi1)
a,i =
(xi+1 xi )(xi xi 1)
xi xi1
a,i+1 =
(xi+1 xi )(xi +1 xi1)
(6.59)
VariableGridSpacing,Diffusion
Expandanalyticaldiffusionterm
(6.60)
N K N
2 N
K
=
+K 2
x x x x
x
Secondordercentraldifferenceapprox.toterms
K
a,i1Ki 1 +a,i K i +a,i +1K i+1
x
(6.61)
N
a,i1Ni1 +a,i Ni +a,i+1Ni +1
x
K
2N
VariableGridSpacing,Diffusion
Solvematrixequationtoobtaincoefficients
2
d,i1 =
(xi xi1)(xi+1 xi1)
2
d,i =
(xi +1 xi )(xi xi1)
2
d,i+1 =
(xi+1 xi )(xi+1 xi1)
(6.63)
VariableGridSpacingSolution
CrankNicolsonform(c=0.5>2ndordertime,space) (6.66)
Ni,t Ni,th
=c{[(auK )N]
+ ( u K )N ] +[(auK )N] }
i 1 [ a
i
i+1 t
h
1
(
c){[(auK )N]i 1+[(au K )N ]i +[(auK )N ]i+1}
th
Coefficientsfordiffusionterm
(6.65)
TwoDimensionalSolution
Advectiondiffusionequationintwodimensions
(6.67)
N (uN) (vN)
N
N
+
+
K h,xx K h,yy
=0
t
x
y
x
x y
y
Centraldifferenceapproximation
(6.68)
Ni, j,t Ni,j,th (uN)i +1, j (uN)i 1, j (vN)i, j+1 (vN)i,j 1
+
+
h
2x
2y
Solve
Ai, j Ni 1, j,t +Bi, j Ni, j,t +Di, j Ni+1,j,t +Ei, j Ni, j1,t +Fi,j Ni, j +1,t =Ni, j,th
SemiLagrangianMethod
Concentrationatcurrenttimetandexistingnodex
(6.69)
Nx,t =Nxuh,th
Valuesattimexuh,thinterpolatedfromexistingnodes
FiniteElementMethod
Advectionequationatnodei
Ni (uN)i
+
=0
t
x
Trialfunction=seriesexpansionapproximationtoN (6.71)
=linearcombinationofbasisfunctions
N j ej (x)
Ni Ni (x) =
ej(x)=basisfunction
j =trialspace
(6.70)
FiniteElementMethod
Residualinadvectionequation
(6.73)
Ni (x)
Ni (x) Ni
Ni Ni (x)
Ni (x)
Ri (x) =
+u
+u
=
+u
0
x t
x t
x
t
Minimizeresidual
Forceitsweightedaveragetozerooverdomain
x Ri (x)ei (x)dx =0
ei(x)=weightfunction
ei(x)=ej(x)>Galerkinmethodofweightedresiduals
ei(x)ej(x)>PetrovGalerkintechnique
(6.72)
FiniteElementMethod
Substitute
Ni (x)
Ni (x)
Ri (x) =
+u
t
x
N jej (x)
Ni (x) =
x Ri (x)ei (x)dx =0
into
toobtain
(6.74)
Ni (x)
Ni (x)
+u
ei (x)dx
x
x t
=
N j ej (x) +u
N j ej (x)ei (x)dx
x
x t
j
N j
ej (x)ei (x)dx +u
t x
dej (x)
ei (x)dx =0
Nj
x dx
FiniteElementMethod
Taketimedifferenceof(6.74)overthreenodes
(6.75)
Ni1,t Ni1,th xi
Ni,t Ni,th xi +1
xi 1 ei1(x)ei (x)dx +
xi 1 ei (x)ei (x)dx
h
h
Ni+1,t Ni+1,th xi +1
+
xi ei +1(x)ei (x)dx
h
xi de (x)
xi +1 de (x)
1
i
ei (x)dx +Ni,t
ei (x)dx
Ni 1,t
dx
xi 1
xi 1 dx
=0
+u
xi+1 de (x)
i+1 e (x)dx
+Ni+1,t
i
dx
xi
FiniteElementMethod
Definebasisfunctionsaschapeaufunctions
x xi 1
x x
i1
i
xi +1x
ei (x) =
xi+1 xi
0
Solveeachintegral
xi
(6.76)
xi 1 x xi
xi x xi +1
all other cases
(6.77)
xi x x x x
x xi1
i
i
1
ei1(x)ei (x)dx =
x x x x dx =
6
xi 1
xi1 i
i1 i
i1
FiniteElementMethod
Substituteintegralsolutionsbackinto(6.75)
(6.78)
Ni+1,t Ni1,t
+u
=0
2
Solvewithtridiagonalmatrixsolution>
4thorderinspace,2ndorderintime
TestswithaFiniteElementMethod
PreservationofaGaussianpeakduringfiniteelementtransportafter
eightrevolutionsaroundacirculargridwhenuh/x=0.02
1200
1000
800
600
Concentration(generic)
Concentration
400
200
200
10
15
20
25
30
Gridcellnumber
Fig.6.8
TestswithaFiniteElementMethod
PreservationofaGaussianpeakduringfiniteelementtransportafter
eightrevolutionsaroundacirculargridwhenuh/x=0.6
1200
1000
800
600
Concentration(generic)
Concentration
400
200
200
400
10
Gridcellnumber
15
20
25
30
Fig.6.8
PseudospectralMethod
Advectionequation
(6.87)
N
N
+u
=0
t
x
RepresentsolutionwithinfiniteFourierseries
N(x,t) =
(6.88)
ak(t)eik2x L
k=0
Fort=0,integratebothsidesof(6.88)from0xL
1 L
ak (0) =
N (x,0)eik2x L dx
L 0
(6.89)
PseudospectralMethod
Truncateinfiniteseries
N(x,t) =
(6.90)
ak(t)eik2x L
k=0
Centraltimedifferenceapproximationof(6.90)
(6.91)
K
K
N
1
ak,teik2x L
ak,t2heik2x L
t 2h
k=0
k=0
Partialderivativeof(6.90)withrespecttospace
N
=
x
k=0
ik2ak,th ik2x L
e
L
(6.92)
PseudospectralMethod
Substitute(6.91)and(6.92)into(6.87)
1
2h
(ak,t ak,t2h)e
k=0
ik2x L
(6.93)
K
=u
k=0
ik2ak,th ik2x L
e
L
SeparateintoKequations>solve
ak,t ak,t2h
uik2ak,th
=
2h
L
(6.94)
TraitsofaGoodAdvectionScheme
Fig6.9
Bounded
Nonoscillatory
Monotonic
Finalshapeaftersixrotationsarounda2Dgrid.Walcek(2000)