Chapter5

CultureandClimateof
Schools

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

OrganizationalCulture
Definitions:
Henry Mintzberg (1989) refers to culture as organization ideology, or the
traditions and beliefs of an organization that distinguish it from other
organizationsandinfuseacertainlifeintotheskeletonofitsstructure.
Stephen Robbins (1998) defines organization culture as a system of shared
meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other
organizations.
EdgarSchein(1992),however,arguesthatthecultureshouldbereservedfora
deeperlevelofbasicassumptions,values,andbeliefsthatbecomeshared
andtakenforgrantedastheorganizationcontinuestobesuccessful.
Our general definition of organizational culture is a system of shared
orientationsthatholdtheunittogetherandgiveitadistinctiveidentity.
Orientationsarevalues,norms,andtacitassumptions.
( Hoy,2003)
Hoy,2008

LevelsofOrganizationalCulture
Deep

Tacit Assumptions-Abstract Premises about

Nature of human nature
Nature of human relationships
Nature of truth and reality
Relationships with the environment

Abstract

Values--conceptions of the desirable

Openness
Trust
Cooperation
Intimacy
Teamwork

Norms-Superficial
( Hoy,2003)

Support your colleagues

Dont criticize your superiors
Handle your own problems
Be supportive
of colleagues
Hoy,2008
Be available to get your students extra help

Concrete

OrganizationalCulture
Culture as norms
Examples of Norms

( Hoy,2003)

Never criticize colleagues in public

Support your colleagues
Handle your own discipline problems
Be available for your students after school
Support the principal
Get to school early in the morning
Be in the hall by your room as classes change

Hoy,2008

OrganizationalCulture
Culture as shared values
Examples of Core Values

( Hoy,2003)

Commitment to the the school

Commitment to teaching
Cooperation and teamwork
Trust and group loyalty
Egalitarianism
Serve your students
High academic achievement

Hoy,2008

OrganizationalCulture
Culture as Tacit Assumptions
Examples of Tacit Assumptions

( Hoy,2003)

Truth ultimately comes from teachers themselves.

Teachers are capable of making decisions in the best
interests of students.
Truth is determined through debate, which often
produces conflict and the testing of ideas in an open
forum.
Teachers are family; they accept, respect, and take care
of each other.
Hoy,2008

FunctionsofCulture

Creates distinctions among organizations

Provides the organization with a sense of identity

Facilitates development of commitment to the group

Enhances stability in the social system

Social glue that binds the organization together

Provides standards of behavior

CAUTION: Strong cultures can promote or impede.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

ElementsofCulture
1.

Innovation: the degree to which employees are expected to be

creative and take risks.
2. Stability: the degree to which activities focus on the status quo
rather than change.
3. Attention to detail: the degree to which there is a concern for
precision and detail.
4. Outcome orientation: the degree to which management
emphasizes results.
5. People orientation: the degree to which management decisions
are sensitive to individuals.
6. Team orientation: the degree of emphasis on collaboration.
7. Aggressiveness: the degree to which employees are expected
to be competitive rather than easy going.
( Hoy,2003)
Hoy,2008

Rites,Ceremonies,&Consequences
Rites of Passage
Student teaching
Lunch duty
Retirement

Consequences
Facilitate transitions to new roles;
socialization

Rites of Degradation
Negative evaluation
Public rebuke

Reaffirm appropriate behavior

Rites of Enhancement
Teacher of the year
Reinforce appropriate behavior
Debate team champions
Football champions

Rites of Integration
Holiday party Enhances cohesiveness
Teachers lounge
Coffee group
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

SchoolCulture:SymbolSystems
Symbols through which school culture is expressed:
Stories--narratives that are based on true events, but often
combine truth and fiction.
Myths--stories that communicate an unquestioned belief that
cannot be demonstrated by the facts.
Legends--stories that are retold and elaborated with fictional
details.
Icons--physical artifacts that are used to communicate the
culture (logos, mottoes, and trophies).
Rituals--are the routine ceremonies and rites that signal
what is important in Hoy,2008
the school.
( Hoy,2003)

SchoolCulture:Metaphors

( Hoy,2003)

The Family
The Machine
The Circus
The Factory
The Jungle
The Zoo
The Fad Shop
The Academy
The Club
Hoy,2008

SchoolCulture
Examples of Four School Cultures

( Hoy,2003)

A Culture of Efficacy
A Culture of Trust
A Culture of Academic Optimism
A Culture of Control

Hoy,2008

ASchoolCultureofEfficacy
A Culture of Efficacy refers to shared perceptionsofteachers
inaspecificschoolthatthefacultyasawholecanexecute
coursesofactionrequiredtopositivelyaffectstudent
achievement.(Goddard,Hoy,&WoolfolkHoy,2000)
ACultureofEfficacyemphasizesacademicperformanceand
NORMSthatinfluenceactions,habits,decisions,&
ultimately,theachievementottheschool.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

ACultureofEfficacy
Directlylinkedwithotherpositiveschoolqualities

Parentalinvolvement
Orderliness
Teacherinnovation
Lowerdropout,suspensionrates

ACultureofEfficacystrengthenstheefficacyofanindividual
teacher,andinfluencesbehavior:

( Hoy,2003)

Greatereffort
Moreperseverance
Moreresilience

Hoy,2008

ACultureofEfficacy

Banduras4sourcesofselfefficacyalsoapplyto
developmentofcollectiveefficacy:
1.
2.
3.
4.

( Hoy,2003)

Masteryexperience
Vicariousexperience
Socialpersuasion
Emotionalarousal

Hoy,2008

ACultureofEfficacy
AdministratorscanbuildaCultureofSchoolEfficacy

SupportMASTERYEXPERIENCES.Giveteacherstimetoplan
andcollaborateandcelebratetheirsuccess.

Provideteacherswithpositivemodels;conferences,workshops,and
visitstooutstandingschool,thatis,cultivatepositiveVICARIOUS
EXPERIENCES.

Fosterprofessionalismandreflectiveteaching,andrewardthose
whocollaborateandsharefeedbacktoenhanceSOCIAL
PERSUASION.

AttendtoteachersAFFECTIVESTATEbyproviding
encouragementduringtimesoffrustration.Frameperformanceasa
functionofacquiredskillratherthaninherentcapability.
Hoy,2008

( Hoy,2003)

A Model of Collective Efficacy

Analysis of
the
Teaching Task
Sources of
Efficacy
Mastery Experience
Vicarious
Experience
Social Persuasion
Affective State

Analyses
Attributions,
and
Interpretatio
ns

Estimation
of Collective
Teacher
Efficacy

Assessment
of
Teaching
Competence

Consequences of
Collective Efficacy
Performance

( Hoy,2003)

Effort
Persistence
Success

Hoy,2008

A School Culture of Trust

Another perspective on School Culture can be mapped in terms of the shared
collective beliefs of the faculty about trust, which is a critical dimension of school
life.
A CULTURE OF TRUST in schools is one in which the teachers trust their students,
their colleagues, parents, and the principal.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

A Culture of Academic Optimism

Another perspective on School Culture can be mapped in terms of the shared
collective beliefs of the faculty about efficacy, trust, and academic emphasisschools
which have all three have a Culture of Academic Optimism.
Academic Emphasis

Faculty Trust
in Parents
Hoy,2003)

Collective Efficacy
Hoy,2008

A School Culture of Control

Another perspective on school culture can be mapped in terms of the shared
and collective beliefs of the faculty about controlling students.
A Custodial School Culture is characterized by a rigid control system over
students. The school is autocratic with the flow of power and control
downward from teachers to students. Students are perceived as irresponsible
and undisciplined persons who must be controlled by punitive sanctions.
Impersonality, cynicism, and mistrust pervade the school; the norms and
values are custodial.
A Humanistic School Culture is an educational community in which
students learn through cooperative interaction and experience. Learning and
behavior are viewed in psychological terms, and misbehavior is seen as
deviate behavior that needs to be understood. Self-discipline is substituted
for strict teacher control. The school is attempting to create an atmosphere to
meet student needs; the norms and values are humanistic.
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

PUPILCONTROLIDEOLGYFORM
PCI
The custodialims of the school climate can be measured by the Pupil Control
Ideology Form (PCI). See www.coe.ohio-state.edu/whoy.
SampleitemsfromthePCI(ElementarySchoolVersion)
DIRECTIONS:THEFOLLOWINGARESTATEMENTSABOUTYOURSCHOOL.PLEASEINDICATETHEEXTENTTOWHICH
EACHSTATEMENTCHARACTERIZESYOURSCHOOLBYCIRCLINGTHEAPPROPRIATERESPONSE.
SD=StronglyDisagreeD=DisagreeU=UndecidedA=AgreeSA=StronglyAgree

1.Itisdesirabletorequirepupilstositinassignedseatsduringassembly.........SD
2.Beingfriendlywithpupilsoftenleadsthemtobecometoofamiliar................SD
3.Pupilsoftenmisbehavetomaketheteacherlookbad...SD
4.Directingsarcasticremarkstowardadefiantpupilisagooddisciplinary
technique....................................SD
5.Thebestprincipalsgiveunquestioningsupporttoteachersin
discipliningstudents..SD

DU
DU
DU

ASD
ASD
ASD

DU

ASD

DU

ASD

Forthecompleteinstrumentanddetailsforscoring,seeHoy&Tarter(1997b)orwww.coe.ohiostate.edu/whoy
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Summary of Key Elements of School Culture

Core Values
Salient Norms
Rites of Passage
Rites of Integration
Common Elements
Innovation
Stability
Attention to Detail
Outcome Orientation
People Orientation
Team Orientation (Collaboration)
Aggressiveness (Competitiveness)
Trust
Collective Efficacy
Academic Optimism
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

OrganizationalClimate
Definitions:

Organizational climate is concerned with large units; it

characterizes properties of an entire organization or major
subunits.

Organizational climate describes a unit of organization rather

than evaluates it or indicates emotional reactions to it.

Organizational climate arises from routine organizational

practices that are important to the organization and its
members.

Organizational climate influences members behaviors and

attitudes.

Put simply, the set of internal characteristics that distinguish

one school from another and influence the behavior of
members is the organizational climate of the school.

Personality is to individual and climate is to organization.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

OrganizationalClimateFrameworks
Three School Climate Frameworks:
The
Openness
Relations

of

Interpersonal

measured by the OCDQ

The Health of Interpersonal Relations

measured by the OHI

A Climate of Citizenship

measured by the OCB

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

OpennessofOrganizationalClimate
School Climate: Open to Closed
An Open School Climate is characterized by teacher
relations that are professional, collegial, friendly, and
committed to the education of students. The principal
is supportive and professional and does not restrict or
direct teachers with orders.
A Closed School Climate is characterized by teacher
relations that are disengaged, distant, suspicious, and
not professional. The principal is directive, restrictive,
and not supportive. Hoy,2008
( Hoy,2003)

OrganizationalClimateDescriptionQuestionnaire
OCDQ
The openness of the school climate can be measured by the Organizational Climate
Description Questionnaire (OCDQ). There are slightly different measures for
elementary, middle, and high schools. See www.coe.ohio-state.edu/whoy.
SampleitemsfromtheOCDQRE(ElementarySchoolVersion)
DIRECTIONS:THEFOLLOWINGARESTATEMENTSABOUTYOURSCHOOL.PLEASEINDICATETHEEXTENTTOWHICH
EACHSTATEMENTCHARACTERIZESYOURSCHOOLBYCIRCLINGTHEAPPROPRIATERESPONSE.
R0=RARELYOCCURSSO=SOMETIMESOCCURSO=OFTENOCCURSVFO=VERYFREQUENTLYOCCURS

1.Theteachersaccomplishtheirworkwithvim,vigor,andpleasure...............RO
2.Teachers'closestfriendsareotherfacultymembersatthisschool....................RO
3.Facultymeetingsareuseless..............................................................................RO
4.Theprincipalgoesoutofhis/herwaytohelpteachers......................................RO
5.Theprincipalruleswithanironfist...................................................................RO
6.Teachersleaveschoolimmediatelyafterschoolisover....................................RO
7.Teachersinvitefacultymemberstovisitthemathome....................................RO
8.Theprincipalusesconstructivecriticism...........................................................RO

SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO

O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O

Forthecompleteinstrumentanddetailsforscoring,seeHoy&Tarter(1997b)orwww.coe.ohiostate.edu/whoy
( Hoy,2003)
Hoy,2008

VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO

DimensionsofOrganizationalClimate
Dimensions of the OCDQ for Elementary Schools and Sample Items
PrincipalsBehavior
Supportivereflectsaconcernforteachers,isopentosuggestions,respectsteachers
professionalcompetence.Praiseisgenuineandfrequentandcriticismisconstructive.
Theprincipalusesconstructivecriticism.
Theprincipallistenstoandacceptsteacherssuggestions.
Directivemaintainscloseandconstantcontroloverallteacherandschoolactivities.
Theprincipalruleswithanironfist.
Theprincipalmonitorseverythingteachersdo.
RestrictiveHindersratherthanfacilitatesteacherwork;burdenswithbusywork.
Routinedutiesinterferewiththejobofteaching.
Teachershavetoomanycommitteerequirements.
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

OCDQDIMENSIONS
Dimensions of the OCDQ for Elementary Schools and Sample Items
TeacherBehavior
Collegialsupportsopenandprofessionalinteractionsamongteachers.Teachers
areenthusiastic,accepting,andmutuallyrespectfulofprofessionalcompetence.
Teachersrespecttheprofessionalcompetenceoftheircolleagues.
Teachersaccomplishtheirworkwithvim,vigor,andpleasure.
Intimatereflectsacohesiveandstrongnetworkofsocialssupportamongthe
faculty.Teachersknoweachotherwell,areclosepersonalfriends,andsocialize.
Teacherssocializewitheachother.
Teachersclosestfriendsareotherfacultymembersatthisschool.
Disengagedreferstoalackofmeaningandfocusinprofessionalactivities.Teachers
aresimplyputtingintimeandgoingthroughthemotions.
Facultymeetingsareuseless.
( Hoy,2003)
Hoy,2008 .
Teachersramblewhentheytalkatfacultymeetings

TypesofOrganizationalClimate
Principal Behavior
Open

Open

Open
Climate

Closed

Disengaged
Climate

Teacher
Behavior

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Closed
Engaged
Climate
Closed
Climate

HealthofOrganizationalClimate
School Climate: Healthy to Unhealthy
A Healthy School Climate is characterized by institutional
integrity--teachers are protected from disruptive outside forces.
The principal has influence with superiors, gets needed
resources, and has a integrated leadership style that is concern
with both the task at hand and the social well being of teachers.
Morale is high and there is a general press for academic
achievement by teachers, parents, and students.
A Unhealthy School Climate is vulnerable to disruptive outside
forces. The principal has little influence with superiors,
resources are scarce, and the principal neither sets direction
nor is supports teachers. Moral is poor and there is limited
attention to academic matters because the teacher have given
( Hoy,2003)
Hoy,2008
up.

OrganizationalHealthInventory
OHI
The health of the school climate can be measured by the Organizational Health
Inventory (OHI). There are slightly different measures for elementary, middle,
and high schools. See www.coe.ohio-state.edu/whoy.
SampleitemsfromtheOHIS(HighSchoolVersion)
DIRECTIONS:THEFOLLOWINGARESTATEMENTSABOUTYOURSCHOOL.PLEASEINDICATETHEEXTENTTOWHICH
EACHSTATEMENTCHARACTERIZESYOURSCHOOLBYCIRCLINGTHEAPPROPRIATERESPONSE.
R0=RARELYOCCURSSO=SOMETIMESOCCURSO=OFTENOCCURSVFO=VERYFREQUENTLYOCCURS

1.Teachersareprotectedfromunreasonablecommunityandparentaldemands.....
2.Theprincipalgetswhatheorsheasksforfromsuperiors...................................
3.Theprincipalisfriendlyandapproachable.............................................................
4.Theprincipalasksthatfacultymembersfollowstandardrulesandregulations....
5.Extramaterialsareavailableifrequested...............................................................
6.Teachersdofavorsforeachother.............................................................................
7.Thestudentsinthisschoolcanachievethegoalsthathavebeensetforthem.........
8.Theschoolisvulnerabletooutsidepressures.........................................................
9.Theprincipalisabletoinfluencetheactionsofhisorhersuperiors....................

RO
RO
RO
RO
RO
RO
RO
RO
RO

SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO

( Hoy,2003)
Forthecompleteinstrumentanddetailsforscoring,seeHoy&Tarter(1997b)orwww.coe.ohiostate.edu/whoy
Hoy,2008

O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O

VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO
VFO

OHIDimensionsandSampleItems

CommunityLevel
InstitutionalIntegritydescribesaschoolthatisnotvulnerabletonarrow,vestedinterestsfromthecommunity.Theschoolisabletocopewell
withoutsidedestructiveforces.

Sampleitems:Theschoolisprotectedfromunreasonablecommunityandparentaldemands.
Theschoolisvulnerabletooutsidepressure.*

ManagerialLevel
PrincipalInfluencereferstotheprincipalsabilitytoaffecttheactionofsuperiors.Theinfluentialprincipalworkssuccessfullywiththe
superintendentforthebenefitofteachers.
Sampleitems:Theprincipalgetswhatheorsheasksforfromsuperiors.

Theprincipalisimpededbysuperiors.*
Considerationbehaviorbytheprincipalthatisfriendly,supportive,open,andcollegial.
Sampleitems:Theprincipallooksoutforthepersonalwelfareoffacultymembers..
Theprincipalisfriendlyandapproachable.
InitiatingStructurebehaviorbytheprincipalthatistaskandachievementoriented.Theprincipalmakeshisexpectationsclearandmaintains
standardsofperformance.
Sampleitems:Theprincipalletsfacultymembersknowwhatisexpectedofthem.
Theprincipalmaintainsdefinitestandardsofperformance.
ResourceSupportrefersprovisionsattheschoolwhereadequateclassroomsuppliesandinstructionalmaterialsareavailableandextra
materialsareeasilyobtained.
( Hoy,2003)
Hoy,2008
Sampleitems:Extramaterialsareavailableifrequested.
Teachersareprovidedwithadequatematerialsfortheirclassrooms.

OHIDIMENSIONSANDSAMPLEITEMS
SchoolLevel

Moralereferstoasenseoftrust,confidence,enthusiasm,andfriendlinessamongteachers.
Teachersfeelgoodabouteachotherand,atthesametime,feelasenseofaccomplishmentfrom
theirjobs.
Sampleitems:Teachersinthisschoollikeeachother.
Themoraleofteachersishigh.
AcademicEmphasisreferstotheschoolspressofachievement.Highbutachievableacademicgoalsare
setforstudents;thelearningenvironmentisorderlyandserious;teachersbelieveintheabilityof
theirstudentstoachieve;andstudentsworkhardandrespectacademicachievement.
Sampleitems:Theschoolsetshighstandardsforacademicperformance.
Studentsrespectotherswhogetgoodgrades.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

SchoolHealthProfiles
800

Healthy Profile

700
600
500
400
300
200

Unhealthy
Profile

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008
Institutional Principal Consideration
Initiating Resource Morale
Integrity Influence
structure Support

Academic
Press

AClimateofCitizenship
AClimateofCitizenshipisaschoolin

whichtheteachersgenerallybehavein
helpfulways.Theytypicallygobeyond
routineduties,voluntarilyhelpothers,
andembraceextrawork.Theirbehavior
ischaracterizedbyaltruism,
conscientiousness,courtesy,andgood
citizenship.Voluntarismisdominate
characterofteacherbehavior.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

OrganizationalCultureandClimate
Culture versus Climate

Cultureissharednorms,values,tacitexpressions

Climateisperceptionsofbehavior

( Hoy,2003)

Schoolclimateisarelativelyenduringqualityofthe
schoolenvironmentthatisexperiencedbyparticipants,
affectstheirbehavior,andisbasedontheircollective
perceptionsofbehaviorinschools

Hoy,2008

ImprovingCulture&Climate
Some Change Strategies:
TheClinicalStrategy
TheGrowthCenteredStrategy
NormChangingStrategy
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

ChangeStrategies
TheClinicalStrategy

( Hoy,2003)

Gainingknowledgeoftheorganization
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Prescription
Evaluation
Hoy,2008

ChangeStrategy
TheGrowthCenteredStrategy:
Acceptanceofthefollowingsetofassumptions:

Changeisapropertyofhealthyschool
organizations
Changehasdirection
Changeshouldimplyprogress
Teachershavehighpotentialforthedevelopment
andimplementationofchange
Hoy,2003)
Hoy,2008

ChangeStrategies
NormChangingStrategy:
Thekeynormsofanorganizationareusuallyrelatedtosuch
importantareasascontrol,support,innovation,social
relations,rewards,conflicts,andstandardsofexcellence.
FiveStepstochangingnorms:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
( Hoy,2003)

Surfacenormsidentifyexistingnorms.
Articulatenewdirectionsteacheragreementonnewdirections.
Establishnewnormsidentifynewnormsthatwillleadtoimprovement
Identifyculturegapsdiscrepancybetweenactualanddesirednorms.
Closetheculturegapsreplaceoldnormswithnewones.
Hoy,2008

Summary
1. Schools have distinctive cultures, core values and beliefs,
which provide members with a sense of organizational
missionandidentity.
2.Strongculturescanbegoodorbadbecausetheycanpromote
orimpedeeffectiveness.
3.Culturecallsattentiontothesymbolicnatureof
organizations;oftenwhatissaidordoneisnotasimportant
aswhatitsymbolizes.
4.Culturesofefficacy,oftrust,andofacademicoptimism
promotestudentachievement.
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Summary
5.Acustodialcultureofpupilcontrolimpedesthesocio
emotionaldevelopmentofstudents.
6. The organizational climate of a school is the set of faculty
perceptions of the dominant behaviors of organizational
participants.
7.Opennessoforganizationalclimateispositivelyrelatedto
loyalty,trust,andcommitmentofteachers.
8.Thehealthoforganizationalclimateispositivelyrelatedto
opennessinmemberinteractionsaswellasschooleffectiveness.
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Summary
9.Strongacademicemphasisintheschoolclimatepromotes
schooleffectivenessandstudentachievement.
10.Changingthecultureorclimateofaschoolisusuallya
difficult,continuous,andlongtermprocess.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008