Cell Division and DNA

Replication

Mitosis
Meiosis
DNA
RNA

Cell Cycle and Division

All cells are derived

from pre-existing
cells

New cells are

produced for growth
and to replace
damaged or old cells

Mitosis

Meoisis

Cell Cycle and Division

Cell Cycle and Division

Interphase resting stage
The entire sequence of events transpiring
from the close at one nuclear division to the
beginning of the next one.

G1 (Primary Growth Phase)

Nucleus and cytoplasm are

enlarging toward mature size

Cell carries on its normal metabolic
activities

Cell Cycle and Division

S (Synthesis Stage)
DNA is copied or
replicated
Synthesis of protein
occurs
G2 (Secondary Growth Stage)
All cell structures
needed for division are
made (e.g. centrioles)
Both organelles &
proteins are synthesized
RNA are replicated

Mitosis

Equational cell division

Series of modification undergone by the
nucleus
Occurs on somatic cell
Karyokinesis
Produces diploid (2n) chromosome
For growth and repair
Water Flemming

Stages of Mitosis

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Overview of Mitosis

Prophase

Chromatin in nucleus
condenses to form visible
chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms from
fibers in cytoskeleton or
centrioles
Nuclear membrane disappears
Nucleolus are broken down
Spindle fibers called
kinetochores attach to the
centromere of each
chromosome

Stages of Mitosis
Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome

Stages of Mitosis

Metaphase

Chromosomes,
attached to the
kinetochore fibers,
move to the center
of the cell

Chromosomes (sister
chromatids) are now
lined up at the
equator

Anaphase

Sister chromatids
are pulled apart
to opposite poles
of the cell by
kinetochore
fibers

Telophase

Sister chromatids at
opposite poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope
forms around each set
of sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
Cytokinesis occurs
Chromosomes
reappear as chromatin

Cytokinesis

Means division of the cytoplasm

Division of cell into two, identical halves called daughter
cells
In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide
cell
In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell

Mitosis

Meiosis

PMAT I
PMAT II

Meiosis

Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis I and Meiosis

II
Called Reduction- division
Original cell is diploid (2n)
Four daughter cells produced that are
monoploid (n)
Gamete formation (Spermatogenesis and
Oogenesis)
Oscar Hertwig

Meiosis

Start with 46 double stranded chromosomes

(2n)
After 1 division - 23 double stranded
chromosomes (n)
After 2nd division - 23 single stranded
chromosomes (n)
Occurs in our germ cells that produce
gametes

Meiosis (Its Importance)

It is the
fundamental basis
of sexual
reproduction

Two haploid (n)

gametes are
brought together
through
fertilization to
form a diploid (2n)
zygote

Overview of Meiosis

Nucleus

Spindle
fibers

Nuclear
envelope

Meiosis I

Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I

Prophase I

Leptotene

Chromosomes

begin to condense
and become visible
Homologous pair
searching begin

Prophase I

Zygotene
Homologous
pair begin
pairing

Pachytene
Synapsis begins
Homologous
chromosomes
form tetrad

Homologous chromosomes
(each with sister chromatids)

Join to form a
TETRAD

Prophase I

Diplonema
Crossing over
occurs
Chiasmata
Diakinesis
Homologous
chromosomes
separate except at
the chiasmata

Metaphase I

Homologous pairs
of
chromosomes
align along the
equator of the cell

Anaphase I

Homologs

separate and
move to opposite
poles.
Sister chromatids
remain attached
at their
centromeres.

Telophase I

Nuclear envelopes
reassemble.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides
cell into two.

Meiosis II
(Reductive Cell Division)

Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II

Meiosis II

Only one homolog of each chromosome is present in

the cell.
Sister chromatids carry identical genetic information.
Meiosis II produces gametes with one copy of each
chromosome and thus one copy of each gene.
Gene X

Prophase II
Nuclear

envelope
fragments.

Spindle

forms.

Metaphase II

Chromosomes align
along equator of
cell.

Anaphase II

Sister
chromatids
separate and move
to opposite poles.

Telophase II

Nuclear envelope assembles.

Chromosomes decondense.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell into

two.

Results of Meiosis

Gametes (egg &

sperm) form
Four haploid cells with
one copy of each
chromosome
One allele of each
gene
Different
combinations of
alleles for different
genes along the
chromosome

Gametogenesis

Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis

Spermatogenesis
Occurs in the testes
Two divisions produce 4
spermatids
Spermatids mature into sperm
Men produce about 250,000,000
sperm per day

Spermatogenesis

Oogenesis

Occurs in the ovaries

Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies
that die and 1 egg
Polar bodies die because of unequal
division of cytoplasm
Immature egg called oocyte
Starting at puberty, one oocyte matures
into an ovum (egg) every 28 days

First polar body

may divide
(haploid)

Oogenesis

Mitosis
Oogonium
(diploid)

Polar
bodies
die

Meiosis I Meiosis II

Primary
oocyte
(diploid)

X
a

X
a

A
X
A

Secondary
oocyte
(haploid)

Ovum (egg) Mature

egg
A
X

Second
polar body
(haploid)

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Chromosomes

Structure

Chromosome

All eukaryotic cells store genetic information

in chromosomes
Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50
chromosomes in their body cells
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or
23 identical pairs
Each chromosome is composed of a single,
tightly coiled DNA molecule
Chromatin

Chromosome

DNA is tightly
coiled around
proteins called
histones
Duplicated
chromosomes are
called chromatids
& are held
together by the
centromere

Chromosome
Karyotype
A picture of the
chromosomes from
a human cell
arranged in pairs by
size
First 22 pairs are
called autosomes
Last pair are the
sex chromosomes
XX female or XY
male

Chromosome

Genetic Materials
(The Nucleic Acid)

DNA
RNA

DNA vs. RNA

Property

DNA

RNA

Function

Long term storage

and transmission of
genetic information

Involves in protein
Synthesis

Location

Nucleus,
mitochondria,
chloroplast

Found all throughout

the cell

Number of Strands

Double stranded

Single stranded

Sugar

Deoxyribose

Ribose

Nitrogenous Base

A, T, G, C

A, U, G, C

Base pairs

A-T, G-C

A-U, G-C

Nucleic Acid Structure

DNA Replication

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Single stranded molecules
Ribose
Involves in protein synthesis
Types of RNA
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA

Cell Central Dogma of Life

one

gene one protein hypothesis

Proposed by Francis Crick
Explains
the flow of genetic
information within the cell
DNA

mRNA

PROTEIN

Protein Synthesis
Occurs

in the nucleus and in

ribosomes
Process by which proteins are
made from amino acids
Involves two processes:
Transcription
Translation

Transcription

Translation

Taxonomy

Classification
Nomenclature
Identification

Taxonomy
the

science of classification of
living organisms is consists of
three separate but interrelated
areas:
classification,
nomenclature, and
identification.

Taxonomy

Classification
is the arrangement of organisms into
taxonomic groups (known as taxa [sing.,
taxon]) on the basis of similarities or
relationships.
Taxa include:
Domains, kingdoms or, divisions or phyla,
classes, orders, families, genera, and
species.

Taxonomy

Dumb King Philip Came Over

For Good Spaghetti
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order,
Family, Genus, Species

Taxonomy

Nomenclature
is the assignment of names to the various
taxa according to international rules.

Identification
is the process of determining whether an
isolate belongs to one of the established,
named taxa or represents a previously
unidentified species.

Microbial Classification

Carolus Linnaeus
Binomial system of nomenclature
In the binomial system, each
organism is given two names:
Genus (Genera)
Specific Epithet
Genus + Specific Epithet = Species

Microbial Classification

To express the genus, capitalize the first letter of the word

and underline or italicize the whole wordfor example,
Escherichia.
To express the species, capitalize the first letter of the genus
name (the specific epithet is not capitalized) and then
underline or italicize the entire species namefor example,
Escherichia coli.
In an essay or article about Escherichia coli, Escherichia
would be spelled out the first time the organism is mentioned;
thereafter, the abbreviated form, E. coli, could be used.
The abbreviation sp. is used to designate a single species,
whereas the abbreviation spp. is used to designate more
than one species.
Staphylococcus spp Pseudomonas spp
Clostridium spp.),
Streptococcus spp

Whats in the Name?

Alexandre Emile Jean Yersin (1863-1943)

Bacillus pestis
Pasteurella pestis,
Yersinia pestis
Jules Bordet
Bordetella
Theodore Escherich
Escherichia
Albert Ludwig Neisser
Neiserria
Daniel Elmer Salmon
Salmonella

Some Disease Causing Bacteria

Taxonomy

Robert H. Whittaker proposed a Five-Kingdom System

of Classification

Bacteria and archaea are in the Kingdom

Procaryotae (or Monera)
Algae and protozoa are in the Kingdom Protista
(organisms in this kingdom are referred to as
protists)
Fungi are in the Kingdom Fungi
Plants are in the Kingdom Plantae
Animals are in the Kingdom Animalia

Taxonomy

Carl R. Woese
devised a Three-Domain System of
Classification
Archaea
Bacteria
Eucarya or Eukarya
Relatedness among organisms is determined
by analysis of genes that code for small
subunit ribosomalRNA (SSUrRNA).

Viruses

DNA Viruses
RNA Viruses

Viruses

Edward Jenner (1798),

introduced the term virus
in microbiology.
Virus in Greek means
poison.
Developed the cowpox
vaccine

General Characteristics of Viruses

The vast majority of viruses possess

either DNA or RNA, unlike living cells,
which possess both.
They are unable to replicate (multiply)
on their own; their replication is
directed by the viral nucleic acid once
it has been introduced into a host cell.
Unlike cells, they do not divide by
binary fission, mitosis, or meiosis.
They lack the genes and enzymes
necessary for energy production.
They depend on the ribosomes,
enzymes, and metabolites (building
blocks) of the host cell for protein
and nucleic acid production.

General Characteristics of
Viruses

Viruses are smaller than bacteria, they range in size between

20-300 nanometer ( nm ).
Viruses contain only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or
RNA, but never both.
Viruses consist of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat.
Some viruses have additional lipoprotein envelope.
Viruses lack cellular organelles, such as mitochondria and
ribosomes.
Viruses are obligate cellular parasites.
Viruses replicate through replication of their nucleic acid and
synthesis of the viral protein.
Viruses do not multiply in chemically defined media.
Viruses do not undergo binary fission.

Viruses

Virion (veer'-ee-on). A complete, infectious

viral particle (i.e., a virus that contains all of
its parts)
Viroids (vi'-roydz). Infectious RNA molecules
(i.e., RNA molecules capable of causing
certain plant diseases
Prions
(pree'-onz).
Infectious
protein
molecules (i.e., proteins capable of causing
certain diseases of animals and humans)

Viral Components

Capsid
Nucleic Acid
Viral Envelop
Nucleic Acid

Viral Components

Capsid (protein coat),

which is composed of
many small protein
units
called
capsomeres

Nucleocapsid:
The
nucleic acid plus the
capsid.

Capsid

Nucleocapsid

Viral Components

Envelop
Protects nucleic acids
Help introduce the viral DNA or RNA
into a suitable host cell
Stimulate the immune system to
produce antibodies that can protect
the host cells against future
infections

Envelop

Viral Components

Nucleic Acids
Genome- the sum total of the genetic
information carried by an organism
They only have the genes necessary to
invade host cells and redirect their
activity
Some viruses are exceptions to the rules
re: DNA and RNA
Parvoviruses contain single-stranded
DNA
Reoviruses contain double-stranded
RNA

Nucleic Acid

Virus Classification

(a) type of genetic material (either DNA or RNA),

(b) shape of the capsid,
(c) number of capsomeres,
(d) size of the capsid,
(e) presence or absence of an envelope,
(f) type of host that it infects,
(g) type of disease it produces,
(h) target cell, and
(i) immunologic or antigenic properties.

Virus Classification

RNA Viruses
DNA Viruses
Can be:
ds-DNA viruses.
ss-DNA viruses.
ds- RNA viruses.
ss-RNA viruses with positive strands( positive
polarity).
ss-RNA viruses with negative strands(negative
polarity).
ss-RNA viruses associated with the enzyme reverse
transcriptase.

DNA Viruses

Parvoviruses
Adenoviruses
Papillomaviruses
Polymaviruses
Herpesviruses
Poxviruses
Hepadnaviruses

DNA Viruses

Parvovirus

Ultra small size

ss DNA viruses
Adeno
associated
viruses

Adenovirus

dsDNA,
icosahedral,
with
envelope Double stranded
DNA
Intranuclear inclusion bodies
Acute Respiratory Disease
Pneumonia
Pharyngoconjunctival
Fever
Epidemic
Keratoconjuntivitis
Genitourinary Infections
(cervicitis, urethritis )
Gasteroenteritis

Papillomavirus / Polymavirus

dsDNA,
polyhedral
(circular)
Genital Warts
Some tumors
some cancer

Herpesvirus

ds DNA Polyhedral
with envelope,
Cold sores or fever
blisters
Genital herpes
Shingles
Chickenpox

Poxvirus

Large, brick shape with envelope,

dsDNA
Cowpox
Smallpox

Hepadnavirus
Envelop
ds

DNA virus

DNA
Hepatitis B

Papovirus
Non-enveloped ds circular DNA
Tumor producing virus
Cervical cancer
Genital warts

RNA Viruses

Picornavirus

Smallest virus
ss RNA
Primary
site
of
infection is lymphoid
tissue associated with
the oropharynx and
gut
Colds
meningitis

Reovirus
ds

RNA
Transmitted
by
mosquitoes and
ticks
Respiratory
tract/enteric
tract
Intestinal
infection

Togavirus

Envelop ss RNA
Dengue like
fever
(chikungunya
virus)

Flavivirus

Enveloped
ss
RNA
Dengue virus

Coronavirus

Enveloped ss helical
RNA
Avian
infectious
bronchitis
Respiratory tract
infections

Rhabdovirus

ss RNA
Bullet shaped
Intracytoplasmic
inclusions
Rabies

Paramyxovirus

Enveloped ss RNA
Intracytoplasmic and
intranuclear inclusion
bodies
Measles

Arenavirus

Enveloped ss RNA
South American
haemorrhagic fever

Bunyavirus

Enveloped ss RNA
All arthropod borne
virus
Encephalitis

Orthomyxovirus

Enveloped ss RNA
Influenza virus

Retrovirus
Enveloped

HIV

ss RNA

Bacteriophages

Phages
The viruses that infect bacteria :
Icosahedron an almost spherical shape, with 20
triangular facets; the smallest icosahedron phages
are about 25 nm in diameter.
Filamentous bacteriophages: long tubes formed by
capsid proteins assembled into a helical structure;
they can be up to about 900 nm long.
Complex bacteriophages: icosahedral heads
attached to helical tails; may also possess base
plates and tail fibers.

Bacteriophages

Virulent bacteriophages always cause

what is known as the lytic cycle, which
ends with the destruction (lysis) of the
bacterial cell.

Bacteriophages

Lytic Cycle

Lytic
Cycle

Animal Viruses
Viruses

that infect humans and

animals are collectively referred to
as animal viruses
Remnants or collections of viruses,
called inclusion bodies.

Multiplication of Animal Viruses

Oncogenic Viruses and

Mimivirus
Oncoviruses
Viruses that cause cancer are
called
oncogenic
viruses
or
oncoviruses.
Mimiviruses
An
extremely
large
doublestranded DNA virus

End!!!!!