Geological Structures

Ahmad Asyraf bin Saari (CF150247)

An Nazrin Johan bin A. Rahim (CF150254)
Mohd Syafiq bin Abdul Kadir (CF140265)
Mohamad Ikhwan bin Missnon (CF150253)
Noor Syahdan bin Mahad Hamzah (CF140249)

Introduction
Over the past thousand million years in Earths history, the
crust has been mobile.
Deformation arises because Earths plate moving relative to
each other.
This type of activities lead to compression and tension
stresses and provide a record of deformations.

Deformation of Rocks
Three different kind of stresses:
Compression
Tension
Shear

Deformation of Rocks
Every rock has a fracture limit that responds to stress
which is:
Brittle

Deformation of Rocks
Every rock has a fracture limit that responds to stress
which is:
Ductile

Deformation of Rocks
The factors that govern the way a rock deform are as
follows:
Confining pressure and temperature.
Time over which the stress is applied.

Types of Deformation
Fractures/Faults

Strike & Dip

Joints

Fractures/Faults
Faults are fractures which have had displacement of the rocks
along them.
Fault commonly create zones of broken ground - weaker and
less stable than the adjacent rock.
Sudden movements along faults may cause earthquakes.
Fault Categories
Normal Fault
Reverse Fault
Lateral Fault
Oblique Slip Fault

Dip Slip Faults

Strike Slip
Faults

Fractures/Faults

Strike and Dip

Definition
Strike:
The line formed by the intersection of horizontal plane (the water surface) and
an inclined plane (the surface of the rock layer).

Dip or dip-angle:
The maximum angular deviation of the inclined layer from horizontal.
the maximal angle of slope of a tilted stratum measured directly downward
from the horizontal plane.
The direction of dip is perpendicular to the strike.

Strike and Dip

Strike and dip is to describe the compass direction
and the degree of inclination of a rock mass.
Outcrop is an exposure of rock at the surface (or the
area of a rock lying directly beneath a soil cover).

Natural example of strike and dip. The strike of the dipping rock
surface is marked by its intersection with the water surface

Joints
These are rock fractures with no movement along them and
tend to break a rock mass into a network of blocks.
They are formed by tectonic stressing and are developed in
nearly all rocks.
Dominant fractures within sedimentary rocks are usually the
bedding planes.
Many bedding planes are very thin bands or partings of shale or
clay between units of stronger rocks.
Massive rocks have less fractures, joints or structural
weaknesses.

Joints

Folds
Folds is a bend or flexure in layered rocks.
It is the most common kind of deformation in layered rocks
usually well collision of developed in great mountain systems
due to the collisions of tectonic plates.
They may be gentle, moderate or strong.
Folds may be rounded or angular.

Folds
Folds Categories:
Monocline
Are folds in which horizontal or gently dipping bed are
modified by simple step-like bends.

Anticline
Up-arched rocks in which the older rocks are in the centre and
the younger rocks are on the flanks.

Syncline
Folded downwards in which the younger beds in the centre
and the older rocks on the flanks diagram of folds.

Overturned anticline and syncline

Monocline

Anticline

Syncline

Overturned anticline & Syncline

Major fold types and elements of

fold.

Competent and Incompetent

Strata
Folding involves brittle and ductile deformation.
Competent rocks are folded rock strata which behave as
brittle material, competent beds are folded by retaining their
original thickness.
Incompetent rocks are folded rock strata which flow as ductile
material and usually composed of soft rocks or thinly bedded
shales or thin beds of sandstone. They are usually strongly
distorted and show rapid changes initial thickness upon
folding.

Unconformity
This is the plane or break between two sequences or rocks
with different dips.
It indicates a period of earth movements and tectonic
deformation between times of sediment deposition.
It forms a major structural break - the older rocks must be
more lithified and perhaps more metamorphosed, than the
younger rocks above unconformity.

Conclusion
Already have structures inside Earths crust.
Can be differentiate between one to another.
Pressures are most influential element.
Shows us how God works through this element.