CE 310 LECTURE 3

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
MILITARY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
RISALPUR

INTRODUCTION
What is concrete ?
Concreteis acomposite material composed ofaggregate
bondedtogetherwithafluidcementwhichhardensovertime
PCC ?
Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)is a construction material,
composed of cement and other cementitious materials such as
flyashandslagcement,aggregate(Fine&Course),water,and
chemicaladmixtures
RCC ?
Reinforced Cement Concrete(RC) is a composite material in
whichconcrete'srelativelylowtensilestrengthandductilityare
counteracted by the inclusion ofreinforcementhaving higher
tensilestrengthand/orductility

INTRODUCTION
Durability is the ability of a Material or Structure to
withstand its design service conditions for its design life
without significant deterioration.
DurabilityRequirementsofACICode
Refertochapter4ofACICode318-08

INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
Concrete structures and structural members designed according to
ACI Code 318 should be strong, serviceable, durable and
economical.
Durability problem can be caused from external agents such as
environmentorbyinternalagentswithintheconcrete.Causescan
becategorizedasphysical,mechanicalandchemical.
Physical causes are due to action of frost and difference between
thethermalpropertiesofaggregateandofthecementpaste.
Mechanicalcausesareduetoabrasion.

INTRODUCTION
Chemical causes are; attack by sulphate, acids, sea water and
chlorides.The attack takes place within theconcrete mass and as
suchtheattackingagentmustbeabletopenetratethroughoutthe
concrete,whichthereforehastobepermeable.Theattackisaided
byinternaltransportofagentsbydiffusionduetointernalgradient
ofmoistureandtemperatureandbyosmosis.
Concretebeingnonhomogeneousmaterialispermeablebutcanbe
madeimpermeablebypropermixdesign.

SULPHATE ATTACK
Concrete attacked by sulphates has a characteristic white
appearance usually starting from the edges and corners and
followed by cracking and spalling of concrete. See fig (Next
Slide).Itiscausedbyformationofcalciumsulphate(gypsum)and
calciumsulphoaluminate(ettringite).Bothproductsoccupygreater
volumethanthecompoundswhichtheyreplacesothatexpansion
anddisruptionofhardenedconcretetakesplace.
Gypsum added to cement to prevent flash set reacts with C 3A to
produce ettringite which is harmless as concrete is still in semi
plasticstateandcanaccommodatetheexpansion

SULPHATE ATTACK

SULPHATE ATTACK

SULPHATE ATTACK
Asimilarreactiontakesplacewhenhardenedconcreteisexposed
to sulphates from external sources. A typical sulphate solution is
thegroundwater of some clays whichcontainsodium,calciumor
magnesium sulphate. The sulphates react with both Ca(OH)2 and
hydratedC3Atoformgypsumandettringite,respectively.
Magnesium sulphate has more damaging effect than other
sulphates because it leads to the decomposition of the hydrated
calcium silicates as well as of Ca(OH)2 and of hydrated C3A.
Hydratedmagnesiumsilicatesoformedhasnobindingproperties.
Theextentofsulphateattackdependsonitsconcentrationandon
thepermeabilityofconcreteIfconcreteisverypermeable,sothat
water can percolate right through its thickness, Ca(OH)2 will be
leachedout.

SULPHATE ATTACK
Evaporation at the far surface of concrete leaves behind deposits of
calciumcarbonate,formedbythereactionofCa(OH)2withCO2,this
depositofwhiteappearance,isknownasefflorescence.Efflorescence
is generally not harmful. However, extensive leaching of Ca(OH) 2
will increase porosity so the concrete becomes progressively weaker
andmorepronetochemicalattack.Crystallizationofothersaltsalso
causeefflorescence.
Saltsattackconcreteonlyinsolutionandnotinsolidform

SULPHATE ATTACK
Factors affecting Sulfate attack

Cement type and content: The most important mineralogical

phases of cement that affect the intensity of sulfate attack are:
C3A,C3S/C2SratioandC4AF.Useofsulphateresistingcement
providesadditionalsafetyagainstsulphateattack.

Addition of flyAsh.Addition of pozzolanic admixture such as

flyashreducesC3Acontentofthecement.

Sulphate type and concentration. The sulphate attack tends to

increase with increase in concentration of sulphate solution up
toacertainlevel.Magnesiumsulphateismostdamaging.
Watertableanditsseasonalvariation
Flowofgroundwaterandsoilporosity
Formofconstruction
Qualityofconcrete

SULPHATE ATTACK

SULPHATE ATTACK

SULPHATE ATTACK

ATTACK BY SEA WATER

Seawatercontainssulphatesandisexpectedtoattackconcreteina
similarmannerasdescribedabovebut,becausechloridesarealso
present,seawaterdoesnotgenerallycauseexpansionofconcrete.
Itisduetothefactthatgypsumandetteringitearemoresolublein
a chloride solution than in water, which means that they can be
moreeasilyleachedoutbytheseawater.Thereisnodisruptionbut
averyslowincreaseinporosityandhencedecreaseinstrength.
Expansioncantakeplaceduetocrystallizationofsaltinthepores
ofconcrete.Crystallizationoccursabovethehighwaterlevelatthe
pointofevaporationofwater

ATTACK BY SEA WATER

Concretebetweentidemarks(Alineormarkonashoreindicating
the highest or lowest level reached by thetide), subjected to
alternate wetting and drying is severely attacked, while
permanentlyimmersedconcreteisattackedleast.
Attack by sea water is slowed down by blocking the pores of
concrete due to deposition of magnesium hydroxide which is
formed, together with gypsum, by the reaction of magnesium
sulphatewithCa(OH)2
Insomecases,theactionofseawateronconcreteisaccompanied
bythedestructiveactionoffrost,ofwaveimpactandofabrasion.
Additional damage can be caused by rupture of concrete
surroundingreinforcementwhichhascorroded.Seefigure.

ATTACK BY SEA WATER

PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Sea water attack can be prevented by the same measures as for
sulphateattackbuttypeofcementisoflittleimportancecompared
tolowpermeability
Adequatecovertoreinforcementisessential;atleast2-3
Minimumcementcontentof350Kg/m3(600lbs/yd3)abovewater
markand300Kg/m3(500lbs/yd3)belowit
Use water cement ratio of 0.40 or 0.45 as recommended byACI
Code
Good workmanship and well compacted concrete specially at
joints

ACID ATTACK
NoPortlandcementisresistanttoattackbyacids.
In damp condition, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2)aswellassomefumespresentintheair,formacidswhich
attack concrete by dissolving and removing a part of hydrated
cementpasteandleavingasoftandveryweakmass.Thisformof
attack occurs in various industrial conditions, such as chimneys,
andsomeagriculturalconditionssuchasfloorsofdairies.
Degree of attack increases as acidity increases. Attack occurs at
values of pH below 6.5 and a pH less than 4.5 leads to severe
attack.
Acidattackcanalsooccurinsewerspeciallyathightemperature
assulphuricacidisproducedresultinginprogressivedeterioration
ofconcrete.
Acid attack can be prevented by surface treatment with coal tar,
pitch,rubberorbituminouspaints,epoxyresinandotheragents

ALKALI-AGGREGATE
REACTION
Concrete can be damaged by a chemical reaction between active
silica constituents of the aggregate and the alkalis in the cement;
this process is known as alkali-aggregate reaction. The reactive
formofsilicaareopal(amorphous),Chalcedony(cryptocrystalline
fibrous), tridymite (crystalline). These materials occur in several
typesofrockwhicharesomewhatrarelyfoundinPakistan.
The reaction starts with the attack of siliceous material in the
aggregate by the alkaline hydroxide derived from the alkalis
( Na2O and K2O) in the cement. The alkali-silicate gel formed
attractswaterbyabsorptionorbyosmosisandthustendsto
increase in volume. Since the gel is confined by the surrounding
cement paste, internal pressure result and eventually lead to
expansion, cracking and disruption of cement paste and to map
cracking ofconcrete.

ALKALI-AGGREGATE
REACTION
Expansionofcementpasteduetohydraulicpressurebutexpansion
can also be caused by the swelling pressure of the still solid
products of the alkali-aggregate reaction. Swelling of hard
aggregateparticlesismostharmfultoconcrete.
Thespeedwithwhichthereactionoccursiscontrolledbythesize
ofsiliceousparticles:fineparticles(20to30m)leadtoexpansion
withinfourtoeightweekswhilelargeronesdosoonlyaftersome
years. It is generally the very late occurrence of damage due to
alkali-aggregatereaction,oftenmorethanfiveyears,thatissource
ofworryanduncertainty

ALKALI-AGGREGATE
REACTION
Otherfactorseffectingprogressofalkali-aggregatereactionare;
Porosityofaggregate
Quantityofalkalisincement
Availabilityofwaterinthepaste
Permeabilityofthecementpaste
Alternatewettinganddrying
Highertemperature
Although it is known that certain types of aggregate tend to be
reactivebutthereisnosimplewayofdeterminingweatheragiven
aggregate will cause excessive expansion due to reaction with
the alkalis in cement. For potentially safe aggregates, service
record have generally to be relied but as little as 0.5% of
vulnerableaggregatecancausedamage.

ALKALI-AGGREGATE
REACTION
Preventivemeasures
Preventcontactbetweenconcreteandexternalmoisture.
Usecementwithalkalicontent0.6%expressedasNa2O
Use blend of OPC with a minimum of 50% granulated blast
furnaceslag.
UseblendofOPCwithaminimumof25%PFA(flyash).
Useofaggregatewhichispotentiallysafe.

ALKALI-AGGREGATE
REACTION

CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT

CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT
ThestronglyalkalinenatureofCa(OH)2,(pHofabout13)prevents
the corrosion of steel reinforcement by the formation of thin
protectivefilmofironoxideonthemetalsurface;thisprotectionis
knownaspassivity.
Iftheconcreteispermeabletotheextentthatcarbonationreaches
the concrete in contact with steel or soluble chloride (normally
from de-icing salts) can penetrate right up to the reinforcement,
andwaterandoxygenarepresent,thecorrosionofreinforcement
willtakeplace.
ThepassiveironoxidelayerisdestroyedwhenthepHfallsbelow
about 11.0 and carbonation lowers the pH to about 9. The
formation of rust results an increase in volume of steel and
swellingpressure(upto5000psi)causescrackingandspallingof
concrete.

CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT
Corrosionofsteeloccursbecauseofelectro-chemicalactionwhich
isusuallyencounteredwhentwodissimilarmetalsareinelectrical
contactinthepresenceofmoistureandoxygen.Howeverthesame
process takes place in steel alone because of difference in the
electro-chemical potential on the surface which forms anode and
cathode regions, connected by the electrolyte in the form of salt
solutioninthehydratedcement.ThepositivelychargedferrousFe +
+attheanodepassintothesolutionwhilenegativelycharged
freeelectrone-passalongthesteelintothecathodewheretheyare
absorbedbytheconstituentsofelectrolyteandcombinewithwater
andoxygentoformhydroxylion(OH).Thesethencombinewith
theferrousionstoformferrichydroxideandthisisconvertedby
furtheroxidationtorust.Seefigure.

CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT

CORROSION DAMAGES

Spalling

Cracks
with
Rust
Staining

Rebar
loss

Delamination

CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT
Wecanwrite,
FeFe+++2e-(anodereaction)
4e-+O2+2H2O4(OH)-(Cathodicreaction)
Fe+++2(OH)-Fe(OH)2(ferroushydroxide)
4Fe(OH)2+2H2O+O2Fe(OH)3(ferrichydroxide)
We see that oxygen is consumed, but water is regenerated and is
neededonlyforprocesstocontinue.Thusnocorrosionoccursin
completely dry atmosphere, (probably below a R.H of 40 %).
OptimumR.Hforcorrosionis70-80%

CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT
Effectofchlorideonconcrete.Chlorideionpresentinthecement
paste surrounding the reinforcement react at anode site to form
hydrochloricacidwhichdestroythepassiveprotectivefilmonthe
steel. The surface of the steel then becomes activated locally to
form anode, with the passive surface forming the cathode; the
ensuingcorrosionistheformoflocalizedpitting.Inthepresence
ofchloridethereactionare;
Fe+++2Cl-FeCl2
FeCl2+2H2OFe(OH)2+2HCl
Because of acidic environment in the pit, once it is formed, pit
remainsactiveandincreasesindepth

Thank You