Air friction damping

Fluid Friction damping

Eddy Current Damping

Parallax

Moving Iron Instrument

Electrodynamometer type
Instruments
Why PMMC instrument cannot
used for AC?
Controlling torque provides by
spring
Damping torque is provided by
air friction

Electrodynamometer
Ammeter

Electrodynamometer
Voltmeter

Electrodynamometer
Wattmeter

Thermocouple

Thermocouple (range of -180C to +1300C)

Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or
unlike metals are joined together at two junctions, an electromotive
force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The amount of emf
generated is different for different combinations of the metals.
Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are
joined together to form two junctions, emf is generated within the circuit
due to the different temperatures of the two junctions of the circuit.

Thermocouple instrument

Contact type Thermoelement

Compensated type Thermoelement

To avoid drawbacks of contact type T.E
2 terminal block, carry current via 2
parallel strips
Conductors P and Q welded at
center of strips.
2 thermocouples PP and QQ
Thermocouple R insulated electrically
from the terminal block
R produces T.E EMF proportional to
change in
the block temp.
This EMF opposes the T.E EMF
produces by the main thermocouples.
This compensate the increase in EMFs
of main thermocouples
due to the
increase in the temperature if hot
junction

Non-Contact type
Thermoelement

Thermocouple Example

Energy Meter

Energy Meter

Digital Energy meter

Metrology processor
The metrology processor performs four-quadrant
multiplication to determine the amount of active power
consumed, as well as the amount of reactive power
loading the mains.

smart meters

It is an advanced metering technology involving placing intelligent meters to

read, process and feedback the data to customers. It measures energy
consumption, remotely switches the supply to customers and remotely controls
the maximum electricity consumption. Smart metering system uses the
advanced metering infrastructure system technology for better performance.
These are capable of communicating in both directions. They can transmit the
data to the utilities like energy consumption, parameter values, alarms, etc and
also can receive information from utilities such as automatic meter reading
system, reconnect/disconnect instructions, upgrading of meter softwares and
other important messages.

Errors and compensations

Creeping

3 phase energy meter

Vibrating reed type frequency meter

Vibrating reed type frequency meter

Weston type frequency

meter

Power Factor Meter

P=VI cos (Phi)
Cos(Phi)=P/VI

Power Factor meter

Working of Power factor

meter

Multimeter for DC

Multimeter as an ammeter

Resistance measurement

Digital Multi-meter

Resistance: Connect an unknown resistor across its input probes. The proportional current
flows through the resistor, from constant current source. According to Ohms law voltage is
produced across it. This voltage is directly proportional to its resistance. This voltage is
buffered
and fed
to A-D converter,
to get
display
in Ohms.
AC Voltage:
Connect
an unknown
AC digital
voltage
across
the input probes. The voltage is
attenuated, if it is above the selected range and then rectified to convert it into proportional
DC voltage. It is then fed to A-D converter to get the digital display in Volts.
AC Currents: Current is indirectly measured by converting it into proportional voltage.
Connect an unknown AC current across input probes. The current is converted into voltage
proportionally with the help of I-V converter and then rectified. Now the voltage in terms of
AC
is fed
to DC
A-Dcurrent
converter
to get
digital display
in Amperes.
DC current
Currents:
The
is also
measured
indirectly.
Connect an unknown DC current
across input probes. The current is converted into voltage proportionally with the help of I-V
converter. Now the voltage in terms of DC current is fed to A-D converter to get the digital
display
in Amperes.
DC Voltage:
Connect an unknown DC voltage across input probes. Keep the switch in
position-5. The voltage is attenuated, if it is above the selected range and then directly fed to

Digital Multimeter