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EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Returning water to the atmosphere

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)

Composed of two subprocesses

Evaporation occurs on surfaces of open water or from vegetation


and ground surfaces.
Transpiration is the removal of water from the soil by plant
roots, transported through the plant into the leaves and
evaporated from the leafs stomata.

Typically combined in mass balance equations because


the components are difficult to partition.
Evapotranspiration
Evaporation
Open
Water

Soil

Vegetation
Surfaces

Transpiration
Plants

POTENTIAL VS. ACTUAL ET


Potential ET (PET) is the amount of
evaporation that will occur if an unlimited
amount of water is available.
Actual ET (AET) is the actual amount of
evaporation that occurs when water is limited.
For large areas can use a mass balance approach
to calculate (Eq. 4.5).

SOME DEFINITIONS

Saturation vapor pressure (es)is the vapor pressure at


which a liquid-vapor system is in a state of equilibrium. It
increases exponentially with temperature (Fig. 4.11).
Actual vapor pressure (ed)is the amount of pressure the
water vapor in the air exerts on the surface it contacts (Eq.
4.7).
Vapor pressure deficit (es-ed) is the difference between
saturation and actual vapor pressures. The book presents
three ways to determine the vapor pressure deficit.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water
present in the air to the amount required for saturation of
the air at the same dry bump temperature and barometric
pressure, expressed as a percentage.

EVAPORATION
o
o

Phase change of water from a liquid to a gas.


Latent heat of vaporization is the energy needed by a
molecule to penetrate the water surface (540 cal/g of water
evaporated at 100C.
Rate of evaporation is driven by the vapor pressure
deficit. Function of:
1.
The ability of air to hold water based on air
temperature and relative humidity.
2.
The energy in the water largely based on
temperature.
Net evaporation ceases when the air has reached the
saturation vapor pressure.

For evaporation to continue, some mechanism is


needed to remove water vapor from the air above the
evaporating surface (wind).

EVAPORATION FROM OPEN WATER


Gives good estimation of PET rates.
Effected by 4 (minor) factors:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Barometric pressure
Dissolved matter
Shape, site and situation of evaporating body.
Relative depth of evaporating body.

Monthly evaporation from lakes or reservoirs can


be calculated using the formula developed by
Meyer, based on Daltons law. (Eq. 4.17)

EVAPORATION FROM BARE SOIL


o

Similar to open water evaporation when soil is


saturated.
Divided into two stages.

Stage 1: Soil is at or near saturation

Evaporation is controlled by heat energy


Approximately 90% of maximum PET

Stage 2: Falling stage


Surface

starts to dry and evaporation occurs below the soil

surface.
Controlled by soil properties rather than weather
conditions.

EVAPORATION FROM VEGETATIVE


SURFACES
Interception is the water retained on plant
surfaces during and after precipitation.
10 to 25% of annual precipitation is intercepted.
Plant transpiration is reduced by the amount of
intercepted water to be evaporated.

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the loss of


water in the form of vapor from
plants
Factors that affect
transpiration rates
Type of plant
Wind
Plant Available Water:
the portion of water in a soil
that can readily be absorbed
by plant roots. Amount of
water released between
field capacity (amount of
water remaining in the soil
after gravitation flow has
stopped) and wilting point
(amount of water in the soil
at 15 bars of suction).

TRANSPIRATION RATIO &


CONSUMPTIVE USE

Transpiration ratio is the ratio of the weight of


water transpired to the dry weight of the plant.

Measure of how efficiently crops use water.


Examples: Alfalfa (900), Wheat (500), Corn (350)

Consumptive Use is the amount of water needed


to grow a crop (ET requirement + water stored in
plant tissues).

MEASURING EVAPORATION AND ET

Several methods

Evaporation Pans
PET Gages-acts as surrogates for plants
Soil Water Depletion
Lysimeters
Energy Balance and Mass transfer-measure average
gradient of water vapor above the canopy.

PAN EVAPORATION

Oldest / simplest method to


measure evaporation
Measure water depths in a pan
U.S. Weather Bureau has
standard Class A pan

Cylindrical container made of


galvanized steel
10 inches deep and 48 inches in
diameter
Pan placed on a 6 inch wooden
platform
Site should be flat and free of
obstructions
Water filled to 8 inches deep

Refill when water drops to 7


inches deep

Water level measurements


made using a hook gage

Measurements to 0.01 inch

DETERMINING PAN FACTORS

Etr=kp Epan

Lake evaporation

Typically taken as
70% of pan
evaporation

PET

Pan evaporation times


a coefficient ranging
from 0.6 to > 1.0.

PAN EVAPORATION / EXAMPLE PROBLEM

Given:

Set

up below with a class A pan


Average wind speed = 4.3 km/hr to the east
Average relative humidity = 67%
Measured water change in pan on July 1 = 7.5
mm

200 m
Class A Pan

200 m
Turfgrass (4 in.)

PAN EVAPORATION / EXAMPLE PROBLEM

Required:

Calculate the PET for July 1

Solution:

Fetch =
Wind speed =
Set up =
Kp =

PET = Kp x depth change =

PET =

PAN EVAPORATION ESTIMATES FOR


TEXAS

LYSIMETERS

Allow an area to be
isolated from the rest
of the field while
carefully measuring
the individual
components of the
water balance.

Weighing
Non-weighingmeasure drainage
from the bottom

ESTIMATING ET
SCS Blaney-Criddle Method

Estimates seasonal AET.


Can be used for monthly
estimates if monthly crop
coefficients are locally available
(Table 4.8)
Assumes mean monthly air
temperature and annual day time
hours can be used as an
substitute for solar radiation to
estimate the energy received by
the crop.
Monthly consumptive factor (f)

tp
100

Where t is the mean monthly air


temperature in F and p is the
mean monthly percentage of
annual daytime hours (Table 4.6).

Definisi
Evaporasi : proses pertukaran (transfer)
menjadi molekul uap air di atmosfir dari air
permukaan bebas (free water surface),muka
tanah atau air yang tertahan diatas
permukaan bangunan atau tanaman.

1.

Interface evaporation : suatu proses


pertukaran air dipermukaan menjadi uap air di permukaan
( interface ) yang besarnya tergantung dari energi dalam
yang tersimpan ( strored energy )

2. Vertical vapor transfer : suatu pemindahan lapisan udara


yang jenuh uap air dari interface ke lapisan diatasnya, dan
ini kalau memungkinkan proses penguapan akan berjalan
terus. Transfer ini dipengaruhi oleh kecepatan angin,
topografi dan iklim lokal.

Soil evaporation: penguapan yg tjd dr permuk tnh


tanpa ada tanaman di atasnya (bare soil)
Transpirasi : Suatu penguapan yang terjadi
dari tanaman melalaui sel stomata pada daun

Evapotranspirasi : Suatu kejadian bersama


sama antara evaporasi dan transpirasi
Potensial evapotranspirasi ( PET ):
Evapotranspirasi dari tanaman bila memperoleh
air (dari hujan atau irigasi) yang cukup untuk
pertumbuhanya yang optimum

Actual evapotranspirasi (EAT) : Evapotranspirasi


dari tanaman dibawah cukup untuk
pertumbuhanya karena air yang diberikan
kurang.

MENGHITUNG

EVAPORASI

Didalam analisa mendapatkan besarnya


evaporasi dibedah menjadi dua yaitu
evaporasi dari permukaan air bebas dan
evaporasi dari permukaaan tanah.

Pada dasarnya evaporasi terjadi karena perbedaan


tekanan uap dari udara pada permukaan air dan dari
udara diatasnya.
Perumusan dasarnya (Dalton) :
E = C ( ew ea ) f (u) ..(5.1.)
f (u) = fungsi kecepatan angin
E = evaporasi dari permukaan air (open water).
C = koefisien tergantung dari tekanan barometer.
U = kecepatan angin.
ew = tekanan uap jenuh muka air danau.
ea = tekanan uap udara diatasnya.

Persamaan empiris
Seperti disebutkan diatas bahwa besarnya
evaporasi sangat dipengaruhi kecepatan angin .
Evaporasi permukaan air bebas perumusan
empirisnya dibedakan dua kejadian :

a). Bila temperatur permukaan air sama dengan


temperatur permukaan udara :
Ea = C (es ea) (f (u)..(5.2)
Dimana :
Ea = evaporasi dari muka air (open water)
untuk temperatur udara dan air yang
sama toC dlm mm/hari.
C = konstante empiris.
es = tekanan uap jenuh udara toC (mmHg).
ea = tekanan uap sesungguhnya udara
diatasnya (mmHg).
u = kecepatan angin pada ketinggian standard.
Dari pers. (5.2) diperoleh pers. Empiris :

Ea = 0,35 (es - ea) (0,5 + 0,54 U2)...............(5.3)


Dimana :
U2 = kecepatan angin dalam m/dt pada
ketinggian 2m
Ea = dalam mm/hari.

(b). Bila temperatur udara dan permukaan air


berbeda, perumusan yang dipakai sama
dengan pers.(5.2) :
Eo = C (es- ea) f ( u )...............(5.4)
Dimana :
es = tekanan uap jenuh dalam lapisan
batas antara udara dan air, yang
mempunyai temperatur tsdan tidak
sama dengan temperatur air atau
udara.

Eo = 0,645(ew - ea) (1 + 0,25 U6)(5.5).


Dimana :
Eo = Evaporasi di danau (mm/hari).
ew = tekanan uap jenuh pada temperatur tw
untuk muka air danau (mmHg).
ea = tekanan uap air sesungguhnya (mmHg).
U6 = kecepatan angin (m/dt) pada ketinggian
6m diatas permukaan.

Perhitungan evaporasi dengan cara ini


disebut
juga dengan cara storage aquation approach, yaitu
dengan menarik suatu keseimbangan yang tetap
pada semua air yang masuk dan meninggalkan
daerah aliran (catchment/drainage basin).

Perubahan

storage dalam daerah aliran


air, salah satunya adalah danau atau air
tanah (aquifer).
Perbedaan dalam aliran air tanah yang
masuk dan keluar dari daerah aliran.
Karena evaporasi dan transpirasi.

E = P + Si + GWo So + S(5.6)
Dimana :
E = Evaporasi.
P = total presipitasi.
Si = surface inflow (kalau ada).
GWo = ground water out flow.
So = surface out flow.
S = perubahan storage di permukaan
dan dibawah permukaan (sub surface)

Besarnya

evaporasi dapat diukur


dilapangan dengan memasang alat
pengukur evaporasi yaitu atmometer atau
pan evaporasi.
Atmometer : alat pengukuran evaporasi
yang kecil yang biasa dipakai dalam
stasiun meteorolgi.

.
Ada tiga atmometer yaitu :
* Tipe Piche
* Tipe Livingstone
* Tipe Bellani
Banyak jenis pan yang dipakai diantaranya adalah :
* Class A Pan Evaporation
* Sunkan pan dengan tipe Colorado
* Young dan BPI
* Floating pan
Ada tiga kondisi kejadian perubahan muka air didalam Pan yaitu :
a). Bila air turun standard ukur dan pada hari itu tidak terjadi
hujan.
b). Bila muka air turun dari standard ukur dan pada hari itu
terjadi hujan

c). Bila muka air naik dari standard ukur


dan pada hari itu terjadi hujan.
Gerakan perubahan uap air diudara (removal vapour) agar proses
evaporasi dapat kontinue, dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut :
K (ts- t)(5.19)
Eo
(es- ea)
5.2.2. Evaporasi dari permukaan tanah.
5.2.2.1 Dengan membandingkan evaporasi
permukaan air bebas.
Harga E0 dari perhitungan cara Penman dapat dibandingkan
dengan besar evaporasi permukaan tanah, turved soil atau bare
soil (ET atau EB) yang dapat ditulis dalam persamaan sebagai
berikut :
EB
Eo

= ( < 1)(5.29)

5.2.2.2 Pengukuran dengan Lysimeter.


Lysimeter adalah alat yang dipakai untuk mengukur
evaporasi dari permukaan tanah secara langsung.
Bila pemberian air irigasi diadakan maka persamaan menjadi
sebagai berikut :
P + I = Et + O S
dimana :
I = air irigasi
Et = evapotranspirasi
S = perubahan storago

5.3. MENGHITUNG TRANSPIRASI


Besarnya transpirasi tergantung dari penyinaran
matahari, temperatur, kelembaban, angin, tersedianya air
dan fase pertumbuhan tanaman.
Pengukuran air akibat transpirasi dapat diketahui dengan
cara mengukur berat pot dengan tanaman dan air setiap
waktu tertentu. Selisih bacaan berat antara dua waktu akan
menunjukkan besarnya transpirasi dari suatu tanaman.

5.4. MENGHITUNG EVAPOTRANSPIRASI


5.4.1. Perumusan evapotranspirasi dari Thornthwaite.
j = ( tn ) 1.514(5.32)
5
dimana : j = heat index bulanan
tn = temperatur rata-rata bulanan (0C)
Temperatur rata-rata t0 diberikan dengan perumusan :
AET = PET x DT mm..(5.36)
360
dimana : D = jumlah hari dalam satu bulan
T = jumlah rata-rata jam siang dalam
satu bulan
Perumusan Thronthwaite telah diuji dan disederhanakan oleh Serra
untuk persamaan (5.32 dan 5.35) menjadi sebagai berikut :
j = 0,09 th1,5(5.37)
dan a = 0,016 J + 0,5(5.38)

5.4.2. Perumusan evapotranspirasi dari Blanney Criddle.


Blanney Criddle mengemukakan perumusan untuk menghitungkan
besarnya potensi evatranspirasi yang dihubungkan dengan
temperatur rata-rata bulanan, prosentase penyinaran matahari
bulanan dalam setahun dan koefisien pertumbuhan tanaman.
Cara ini menggunakan perumusan sebagai berikut :
U = k . f ..(5.39)
100
dan f = t x p (5.40)
dimana :
U = evapotranspirasi bulanan (in)
k = koefisien pemakaian air konsumtif (empiris)
f = faktor pemakaian air konsumtif
t = temperatur rata-rata bulanan ( 0F)
p = persentase jam siang hari bulanan dalam
setahun (tabel 5.4).

5.4.3. perumusan evapotranspirasi dari Ture, Langbein dan Wundt.


dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut :
P = + (5.43)
dimana :
P = rata2 hujan tahunan.
= rata2 evapotranspirasi tahunan.
= rata2 autflow tahunan.
= rata2 inflow tahunan.
Maka menurut ture :
E=
P .
0,9 + p2
L2
5.4.4. Perumusan evapotranspirasi dari Parman.
Perumusan dapat ditulis sebagai berikut :
PET = k . E0..(5.46)
dimana :
k = koefisien tanaman bulanan (tabel 5.5)

5.5. CONSUMPTIVE USE.


Penggunaan konsumtif (consumtive use) adalah
evapotranspirasi dari suatu daerah yang ditumbuhi
tanaman, biasanya dipakai dalam hubungannya dengan
pertanian yaitu untuk menghitung besarnya kebutuhan air
irigasi, penggunaan konsumtif (c.u) sama besarnya dengan
PET, kekurangan moisture tanah (soil moisture deficiency).
Besarnya C.U. tergantung dari berbagai faktor seperti
iklim supplay moisture tanah, macam dan umur tanaman
yang tumbuh, macam tanah dan cara pengarapan.
Keperluan air untuk tanaman ada optimumnya, yaitu
banyaknya air yang harus diberikan untuk mendapatkan
hasil yang tertinggi.

MONTHLY PERCENTAGE OF
DAYTIME HOURS, P

BLANEY-CRIDDLE EQUATION
U is the seasonal
consumptive use in
in/season
K is the seasonal
consumptive use coefficient
for a crop with a normal
growing season (Table 4.7)

U K fi
i 1

SEASONAL CONSUMPTIVE USE


FACTORS

Mean monthly
temperatures are
available on the web
at a variety of places.
For example

http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/r3d/ushcn/statem
ean.html
http://www.weatherbase.com/

PET ESTIMATION METHODS


Simple models require measurement of only 1
weather variable
Temperature methods

Relates PET rates to air temperature


Thornthwaite Method (good only for east-central
U.S.)
Requires

average monthly air temperature


Latitude which is related to the length of day

Radiation methods

Relates PET rates to solar radiation


Jensen-Haise method

PENMAN METHODS

Penman equations

Equations to account for energy required to sustain


evaporation
Solar

radiation
% sunshine
Humidity
Wind

Long equations with many variables (Eqn. 4.30)


Problems

Complex

equation
Need to keep units consistent
Need lots of data as inputs

PET IN TEXAS
Daily PET (MM) January

Daily PET (MM) August

DAILY EVAPORATION IN BELGIUM

Daily evapotranspiration (mm/day). June 26, 1996.

LONG TERM WATER BALANCES


Basic equation for a control volume:
I - O = S
Inputs Outputs = Change in Storage

Control volumes in hydrology

Pond, cultivated field, subdivision, watershed, river basin, etc.

Example1: Control volume is a pond


Inputs (I)
precipitation, runoff, water pumped in
Outputs (O)
Discharges, seepage losses, evaporation
Change in Storage S)
Change in volume of water stored in pond

LONG TERM WATER BALANCES


Example 2: Control volume is a vegetated plot

Inputs: precipitation, irrigation


Outputs: evapotranspiration (ET), infiltration, runoff
S = change in volume of water stored in the soil profile

2 conditions exist for vegetated plots


1.
2.

If the soil profile is kept very wet ET is maximized.


If the soil profile dries naturally ET is limited by
available water in the soil profile

BAEN 460 AND AGSM 335

Homework 3

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