Soil Formation

weathering of rock

Physical weathering

Reduction in size without change

in composition from parent rock

Agents ( )
Exfoliation( )
Unloading ( )
Erosion
Freezing
thawing

chemical weathering

Reduction in size and change in

composition from parent rock

Agents( )
hydration( )
hydrolyzation
oxidation
carbonation ( )
dissolution

Soil Formation

Transportation

in situ weathering

Residual soil

Transported soil

Evaluation of Gradation
Uniformity

content

Cu = d60 / d10

Diameter (mm)

d10

0.01
0.005

d30

0.10
0.05

d60

0.001

Sample A

1.0
0.5

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

10
5.0

P finer

Uniformity Coefficient

For well-graded soils, Cu>5

( )

i.e., Cu<= 5 are considered to be "poorly graded.

The minimum value of Cu is ?

The minimum value of Cu is one and corresponds to an assemblage of

particles of the same size. The gradation curve for a uniform soil is
almost vertical .

coefficient of curvature :
Cc = d302 / (d60 d10 )
Cu> 7; Cc= 0.5
For well-graded soils, Cc= 1~3, graded
continuously( )
As Cc 1 0r Cc 3 graded with discontinuity

,
.

For well-graded soils:

(1) Cu>5
(2) Cc= 1~3

Water in fine grained soils

The state of water in a clay soil is more complex
than in a sandy soil.
Gravity water (the only one that can..)
Water state

Capillary water
Strong bonded water
Weak bonded water

Clay particle form electric field in water. Negative

anion( spread at the surface of clay particle,
the anions absorb the cations of water molecules.

 Other commonly used index

Air
Water

Soil

Vv=e
V=1+e
Vs=1

emax e
( d d min ) d max
Dr

emax e min ( d max d min ) d

Dense standard

Dr = 1

densest
Dr = 0
loosest

Dr 1/3

loose

1/3 < Dr 2/3 , medium

Dr > 2/3 ,
dense

Deform
without
visible crack

volume

Flows like a
viscous liquid

Visible crack
appear

solid

Semi-solid

WSL

plastic

WPL

liquid

WLL

water content

lower strength

Changes in soil states as a function of soil volume and

water content

1.4.4 consistency states of clay soils

2 Consistency index(

plastic index
I p L p
the ability of absorbing bonded water, extent of
cohesion, content of clay particle
an effective index used for soil classification of fine
grained soils.

Joint measurement of liquid limit

and plastic limit

Water contenr (%)

Double logarithmic curve

Draw the straight line of cone

penetration depth ~Water content
2mm depth WP
10mm depthWL10
17mm depthWL17 (international
standard)
WL10Code for design of building
foundation GB 50007 2011
WL17Standard for soil test method
(GB/T50123 1999)
Cone penetration depth ~Water content

1.3.5 consistency states of clay soils

2 Consistency index(

plastic index
I p L p
Ip indicates the ability of absorbing bonded
water, extent of cohesion, content of clay particle
Ip is an effective index used for soil classification of fine
grained soils.

1.3.5 consistency states of clay soils

2 Consistency index(

Liquidity index

IL
Hard state
IL<0
IL=0 ~ 1 Plastic state
Fluid state
IL>1

w wp
wL wp
0.00 ~ 0.25 hard plastic
0.25 ~ 0.75 Plastic
0.75 ~ 1.00 soft plastic
Hard state

wp

Plastic state Fluid state

wL

2.2.1 Darcys Law

Thus
denote:

h
Q kA
L

(1)

k the coefficient of permeability

(hydraulic conductivity ).
Equation (1) may be written as

Q kAi

(2)

2.2.1 Darcys Law

Q kAi

Or:

Q
v ki
A

where i = h/L
v = Q/A

(2)

(2)

the hydraulic gradient

the superficial velocity

i the total head loss per unit length

Constant head permeameter

X
H
Q kA
T
L

(1)

XL
k
AHT

(2)

Soil
sample

formula for calculating the permeability of sandy

soils.

Constant head permeameter

XL
k
AHT

(2)

Example:
Known: T=20s, X=30cm3, L=10cm, H=5cm,
A=25cm2

XL
30 10
k

0.12 cm / s
AHT 25 5 20

Step 7: Determine the coefficient of permeability.

From Darcys law v=ki

v 0.0013

1.08 10 5 cm/s
i
1.2

Exercise 2:

Plot the variation of elevation,pressure, and

total heads along pipe, calculate i AC and i CB

Step1: Select a datum.

Select the exit at B along the centerline of the
drainage pipe as the datum.
Step 2: Determine heads
at A and B.

(h Z ) A 0m
(h p ) A 0.3 2 1 3.3m

H A 0 3.3 3.3m

k1 2k 2

The effective conductivity of the layered soil:

k H
j

k equiv =

J=1

k equiv =

H
n

H /k
j

J=1

Geometric Properties of Flow net

1 Orthogonality of flow and equipotential lines

orthometric perpendicular
2 The length-width ratio of a flow net is constant
for each grid.
3 The head drop between adjacent EPs, h, is the
same.
4 Each flow tube carries the same flow Q

How to calculate flow, pore pressure in a

flow net ??
soil

46m

14m
q
q

q
G

B
C

F
soil
0

0
(1) Calculate pore pressure
for any point in flow net
h=14/7=2m
HA=44m,HB=43m,HC=42m
HD=40m,HE=38, HF=36m,HG=34m

(2) Calculate Q
if q= 5m3/s
then Q=4q=20m3/s
How to calculate q?

Calculation of pore
pressure
15 m

5m

Phreatic line

POTENTIAL LINE

h = 15m

h=0

h = 12m

FLOW LINE

Pore pressure from

At P, using dam base
as datum

h = 9m

h = 6m

h = 3m

uw
h
z
w
u w [12 (5)] w 17 w

(11a)

(11b)

2.4.1 types of seepage failure

Hydraulic fracturing

Flowing soil

soil piping

(1) Principle of effective stress for

saturated soil
( )
Total stress on a plane of
saturated soil can be divided
in to two components.

= ' + u

'= u

u
'

'
i i cr
- Flowing soil condition
w

soil

No overburden weight

p
i cr Flowing soil condition
dependant on effective

soil

-stress

with overburden weight

(3) Flowing soil condition in

Soils
(usually
flow
During
upward flow,in
at X:clay soils)

'
i
v = z - wiz w z
w
'
so, i cr
w
'

'

If i > ic, the effective stresses is negative.

i.e., no inter-granular contact & thus failure.

'
- Flowing soil condition
i i cr
w

h2
h1
L

z
X
soil

3.3 Geostatic stresses

3.3.2 Saturated Soil - Effective Stress
No . of layers

i 1

di i

v u
'
v

K 0
'
h

'
v

h K 0 v ??

confined stress state ( )

one dimensional deformation (
Infinite half space.

Self weight stress dependent on depth

Z
No lateral deformation

Strain state

y x 0;
xy yz zx 0

sA sB

Features (DRAW THE

DIAGRAM!):
1. shows axisymmetric distribution
2.On the loading action vertical line, r=0, K=3/(2 ,
z=0,z; z z=0
3.On a horizontal plane, z=const r=0, K max. r
K decrease z decrease.
P
4.On a cylindrical surface
r=const z=0, z=0 z
z increase--decrease

32

Super structure
base
foundation

Base pressure the contact pressure between base and foundation, it

is transferred from base to foundation.

Elastoplastic soil, with finite rigidity foundation

Sand soil

Clay soil

elastic stress

saddle
parabolic

inverse bell

34

Chapter 4 soil Compressibility and

foundation settlement calculation

(1) e - p curve
e
e: dimensionless variable

1.0

example

0.9

Compression coefficient:

e
a= p

(4)

P
ES = Z

(5)

0.7
0.6

Confined compression
modulus:

0.8

100

200 300 400

p (kPa)

P
ES = Z

(5)

e
becaus z
1 e0
e
(1+e0 )p 1+e0
ES =

e
a
- v - z
1
a
mv

p
p
E s 1 e0

(6)

(7)

mv: volumetric compression coefficient (KPa1

MPa - 1 )

a1-2 is usually used as a index for

assessing the compressibility of a soil.
a1-2
Soil type

a1-2 (MPa-1)

High
compressive soil

0.5

medium
compressive soil

0.1-0.5

low compressive
soil

0.1

Idealised 1-D soil behaviour

e

1
OCC
OCC

Cc

1 C
e
NCC

log (p)

4.4.2 Calculation of consolidation degree

A

(1) Basic concept

z ,t u z ,t

B
M

for a point

U z ,t

z ,t

U z ,t

u z ,t
z z u z , t

1
z
z
z

Uz,t=0 1

for a soil layer

SABCE
Ut

SABCE

dz 1 u dz
dz
dz
0

z ,t

z ,t

40

(2) Relationship between average consilidation degree Ut and

settlement St Ut St

SABCE
Ut

SABCE

St
Ut
S

dz 1 u dz
dz
dz
0

z ,t

z ,t

St U t S

St Ut
Ut uz.t

41

5.2 Shear Strength

Measuring

42

M max M 1 M 2

D 3
M 1 2 fh 2r rdr
fh
6
0
D
M 2 DH fv
2
D/2

fh fv

M max

M1

D
D H
M1 M 2
f
f
6
2
f

M2

M max

D 2 D
( H)
2
3
43

General stress~strain relation

~
1 - 3
1 - 3
1 - 3

1 - 3

1 - 3

(
)

Shear strength consists of two components:

cohesive( ) and frictional( ).

f c tan

f tan

sive nt
e
h
co pone
com

frictional
compone
nt

5.3.3 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

1 3
2

f c tan

c
O

1 3
c ctg
2
1 3
1 3
2
sin

1 3
1 3 2c ctg
c ctg
2

Example
A soil, c=10kPa, =240. Point M is at the state of
1 =300kPa, 3 =150kPa.
(1) M failure or not?
(2) The value of 1 for soil failure at 3 =300kPa.
Solution:
1 f

3tg 45 2c tg
45
2

2
24
24

2
=150tg 45 2 10 tg
45

2
=386.5kPa > 1 300kPa
2

(1) Point M is at stable state.

(2) The value of 1 for soil failure at 3 =300kPa

should be 740.55kPa.

Pore Pressure Parameters

B-parameter
B = f (saturation,..)
For saturated soils, B 1.
A-parameter at failure (A)
A = f(OCR)
For normally consolidated clays A >1/3
For heavily overconsolidated clays A<1/3 ,possibly negative.
A>1/3
A<1/3 or
negative

CD
Consolidated Drained Triaxial test (CD)
cd d c

CU
Consolidated Undrained Triaxial test (CU)
ccu cu

UU
Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial test (UU)
cu u cuu uu

Applications in engineering
Clay soil, Unconsolidated, quick surcharge.

UU

Dry density (d)

Zero Air Void Curve

- corresponds to 100% saturation
Zero air void curve (Sr=100%)

Sr<100%
Sr>100% (impossible)
All compaction points should lie
to the left of ZAV curve

51

Water content

Dry density (d)

Effect of Compactive Effort

Increasing compactive
effort results in:
Lower optimum
water content
Higher maximum
dry density

E2 (>E1)

E1

52

Water content

Compaction Control
-a systematic exercise where you check
at regular intervals whether the
compaction was done to specifications.
e.g., 1 test per
1000 m3 of
compacted soil

Minimum
Minimumdry
drydensity
density
Range
Rangeofofwater
watercontent
content

Field measurements (of d) obtained using

sand cone ( )
nuclear density meter
53