Chapter 2: Introduction to

Leadership and
Management
By: Mohammed Hussien (MPH/HSM)
Wollo University

Chapter Objectives
After completion of this chapter, students
will be able to:

Discuss the different types of

management theories

Discuss managerial roles and functions

Differentiate the basic concepts and

practices of management and leadership

Discuss leader shift so as to become a

manager who leads
2

The evolution of
management theory

The evolution of management

theory

Management is such a complex subject that it

can be approached from different
perspectives or major developments in
thought

Although these developments, or schools of

thought, are different, they do not compete
with each other

they complement and support each other

Well-trained managers select the

management ideas that seem to fit the
problem at hand

The historical approaches laid the foundation

4

Approaches to management
theory

the major developments in

management thought are:
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Classical (scientific management and

administrative management),
Behavioral approach
Quantitative approach
The systems perspective
Contingency schools

Chronological development of management

perspectives

1. Classical Schools of
Management

Bosses used to make decisions haphazardly,

without any systematic study, thought, or
collection of information

there were no

procedures to standardize operations,

standards by which to judge whether

performance was good or bad, and

follow-up to determine if productivity or quality

actually improved when changes were made

This all changed, however, with the advent of

classical school of management
7

Classical Schools of
Management...

The classical school of management is the

original formal approach to studying management.

Its followers search for solid principles and

concepts that can be used to manage work and
people productively

As a result, the classical management theory

developed from efforts to find the one best way
to perform and manage tasks

This school of thought is made up of two branches:

Classical Schools...
Classical scientific school

arose because of the need to increase

productivity and efficiency

focuses on ways to improve the performance of

individual workers (the only way to increase
productivity was to increase the efficiency of
workers)

the application of scientific methods to increase

individual workers productivity

there is always one best way and has to be

discovered and put in action
9

Classical Schools...
Classical administrative school

Whereas scientific management focused on the

productivity of individuals, the classical
administrative approach concentrates on the
total organization

Administrative management was concerned

primarily with how organizations should be
managed and structured

the development of managerial principles in the

structuring and managing of an organization,
rather than work methods
10

Classical Schools...

H. Fayol developed 14 management principles

through which management engaged in
planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating, and controlling.

These principles provide modern-day managers

with general guidelines on how a supervisor
should organize her department and manage
her staff

One example of his principles is unity of

command - for any tasks, each worker should
receive orders from only one supervisor
11

2. The Behavioural Approach

The classical theory ignored employee motivation

and behavior.
The behavioral management theory emphasizes
improving management through an understanding
of the psychological makeup of people
It is often called the human relations movement
because it addresses the human dimension of work.
Behavioral theorists believed that a better
understanding of human behavior at work, such as
motivation, conflict and group dynamics improved
productivity
The primary strength of this approach is - it
encourages managers to take into account the
human element
12

The Behavioural
Approach...
Three cornerstones of the behavioral approach

are

the Hawthorne studies,

Theory X and Theory Y, and

Maslows need hierarchy.

These developments contributed directly to

managers understanding of the importance of
human relations on the job

The purpose of the Hawthorne studies was to

determine the effects of changes in lighting on
productivity
13

The Behavioural
It was the origin of the phenomenon of Hawthorne
Approach...

effect, which describes the special attention

researchers give to a studys subjects and the
impact that attention has on the studys findings

It is the tendency of people to behave differently in

response to perceived attention from evaluators

Abraham Maslow, developed one of the most widely

recognized need theories, a theory of motivation

Maslow suggested that humans are motivated by

efforts to satisfy a hierarchy of needs

The need hierarchy prompted managers to think

about ways of satisfying a wide range of worker
needs to keep them motivated
14

The Behavioural
Approach...
X and Y theory: the assumptions managers make

about human nature.

Theory X is a set of traditional assumptions that

managers who hold these assumptions are
pessimistic about workers capabilities.

They believe that workers dislike work, seek to

avoid responsibility, are not ambitious, and must
be supervised closely.

Theory Y, poses an optimistic set of assumptions.

These assumptions include the idea that people
do accept responsibility, can exercise self-control,
possess the capacity to innovate
15

3. Quantitative Approaches

The quantitative approach is often referred to as

management science.
The management-science school provides
managers with a scientific basis for solving problems
and making decisions.
It uses a wide array of mathematical and
statistical techniques
To many people, the use of computers in
management is synonymous with management
science
The development of high-speed computers and of
communications among computers provided the
means for tackling complex and large-scale
organizational problems
16

4. The Systems Perspective

The systems perspective is based on the

concept that an organization is a system or an
entity of interrelated parts
It is a way of viewing aspects of an organization as
an interrelated system
Rather than viewing one part of an organization as
separate from the other parts, a systems approach
encourages managers to complicate their thinking
by looking for connections between the different
parts of the organization.
Another aspect is to regard the organization as an
open system, one that interacts with the
environment
Therefore, it is well informed about changes
within
17
its surroundings and its position relative to these

The Systems
Perspective...
An organization as a system is composed of four

elements: inputs, transformation processes,

outputs and feedback
The organization transforms inputs into outputs
and supplies them to the outside world.
If these outputs are perceived as valuable, the
organization will survive and prosper
The feedback loop indicates that the acceptance
of outputs by society gives the organization new
inputs for revitalization and expansion.
Managers can benefit from this by contributing
something of value to external customers and
clients
18

A Systems View of
Organization

19

The Systems
Perspective...

Two other influential concepts from the systems

perspective are entropy and synergy.

Entropy is the tendency of a system to run down

and die if it does not receive fresh inputs from its
environment

Synergy means that the whole is greater than

the sum of the parts

When the various parts of an organization work

together, they can produce much more than
they could by working independently
20

5. Contingency School of
Management
The appropriate management actions and
approaches depend on the situation.

emphasizes that there is no single best way to

manage people or work in every situation.

It encourages managers to study individual and

situational differences before deciding on a course of
action.

managers need to spend more time analyzing

problems, situations, and employees before taking
action to fix them

Contingency thinking avoids the classical one best

way arguments and recognizes the need to
understand situational differences and respond
appropriately to them.
21

Management in the Future

The best practices of management include the

major developments in management thought
Successful managers recognize that although each
theoretical school has limitations in its
applications, each approach also offers valuable
insights that can broaden a managers options in
solving problems and achieving organizational
goals
Modern management approaches recognize that
people are complex and variable
Employee needs change over time; people possess
a range of talents and capabilities that can be
developed
Organizations and managers, therefore,
should
22
respond to individuals with a wide variety of

Basic concepts of
leadership, management
and governance

23

What is Management?

Although management is so old and universal, it

has no agreed definition; definitions are several

Management is the process of accomplishing

predetermined objectives through the effective
use of human, financial, and technical resources

It is the art of getting things done through people

Efficient utilization of resources for effective

achievement of organizational objectives

Managing means planning and using

resources efficiently to produce intended
results (MSH)
24

Levels of Managers

1.

Managers are people formally appointed to

positions of authority in organizations or systems
who are responsible for the work performance of
group members
Managers are categorized into three levels.
Top level (senior managers)

mangers responsible for the overall

management of the organization.

establish operating policies and guide the

organizations interaction with its
environment

Establishes long term goals and oversees the

work of middle level management
25

Levels of Managers...
2.

Middle level managers

Managers located between top-level and
frontline managers in the organizational
hierarchy.
They are responsible for other managers
and sometimes for some operating
employees.
report to more senior managers.
responsible for translating strategic
goals and plans into more specific
objectives and activities
26

Levels of Managers...
3.

First-line (front line) mangers

Supervise the operational activities of the
organization
have authority and responsibility for
overseeing a specific type of work and a
particular group of workers (non-management
people often called operating employees)
plan for a short term, involving scheduling
employees and establishing detailed
procedures to perform worker tasks.

27

Levels of Managers...

Regardless of title or level, managers have several

common attributes:
They are formally appointed to positions of
authority
They are charged with directing and enabling
others to do their work effectively.
They are responsible for utilizing resources.
They are accountable to superior for results.
The primary differences between levels of
managers are the degree of authority, the scope of
responsibility and accountability at each level.
28

Management Functions

To accomplish goals, the manager performs four

managerial functions in the context of the
management process

Planning

1.

If you have no particular destination in mind,

then you can take any road

involves the process of defining goals,

establishing strategies for achieving those
goals, and developing plans to integrate and
coordinate activities

29

Management Functions...
2.

Organizing

the process of making sure the necessary

human and physical resources are available to
carry out a plan and achieve organizational
goals

involves assigning activities, dividing work into

specific jobs and tasks, and specifying who has
the authority to accomplish certain tasks

involve grouping of activities into departments

or some other logical subdivision
30

Management Functions...
Leading

3.

influencing others to achieve organizational

objectives
it involves energizing, directing, persuading
others, and creating a vision
Involves interpersonal processes: motivating,
communicating, coaching, and showing group
members how they can reach their goals.
The leadership aspect of management focuses
on inspiring people and bringing about change,
whereas the other three functions focus more on
maintaining a stable system
31

Management Functions...
Controlling

4.

Controlling generally involves comparing actual

performance to a predetermined standard

any significant difference between actual and

desired performance would prompt a manager
to take corrective action

determining whether the original plan needs

revision, given the realities of the day

it causes a manager to return to the planning

function temporarily to fine-tune the original
plan
32

Management roles

Henry Mintzberg says that what managers do can

best be described by looking at the roles they
play at work

From his study of actual managers at work, he

concluded that managers perform 10 different
but highly interrelated roles.

The term management role refers to specific

categories of managerial behavior

Mintzberg grouped the 10 managerial roles in to 3

categories.

33

Management roles...
1.
.

Interpersonal roles:
Are based on the use of formal authority and
involve interpersonal relationships
a. Figurehead: Symbolic head; obliged to
perform a number of routine duties of a legal or
social nature like greeting visitors; signing legal
documents, addressing the media
b. Leader: managers motivate and encourage
workers to accomplish organizational objectives
c.
Liaison: Maintains self-developed network of
contacts with people outside the organization,
such as key partners with whom good working
relationships are required
34

Management roles ...

2.
.

Informational roles
Informational roles flow from the interpersonal roles and
are associated with fulfilling these roles
many contacts made while performing figurehead and
liaison roles give managers access to a great deal of
important information
a.
Monitor: involving seeking, receiving, and screening
information. Managers need to scan their
environments for information that may affect their
organization and evaluate the information
b.
Disseminator: Transmits information received from
outsiders or from subordinates to members of the
organization
c.
Spokesperson: transmits information to outsiders
on organization's plans, policies, actions, results etc
35

Management roles...
3.
.

Decisional roles
The informational roles lead naturally to a range of
decisional roles: Managers use information to make
decisions
a.
Entrepreneur - Change agent: involve designing and
initiating changes within the organization; sharing
and initiating new ideas or methods
b.
Disturbance handler: Responsible for corrective
action when organization faces important,
unexpected disturbances
c.
Resource allocator: Responsible for the allocation
of organizational resources of all kindsmaking or
approving all significant organizational decisions
d.
Negotiator: Responsible for representing the
organization at major negotiations (with suppliers,
36
clients, governments)

37

Managerial Skills
To be effective, managers must possess three key
managerial skills
1. Technical skills

involves an understanding of and proficiency in a

specific activity that involves methods, processes,
procedures, or techniques

It is the managers understanding of the nature of

job that people under him/her have to perform.

Such skills can be acquired through training,

education and work experience.

Technical skills are frequently referred to as hard

skills

38

2. Interpersonal skill (human

relations)

a managers ability to work effectively as a team

member and to build cooperative effort in the unit.

communication skills are an important component of

interpersonal skills

interpersonal skills are often referred to as soft skills

many managers at all levels ultimately fail because

their interpersonal skills do not match the demands
of the job.

an important subset of interpersonal skills for

managers is multiculturalism, the ability to work
effectively with people from different cultures

39

3. Conceptual skill

is the ability to see the organization as a total

entity

it includes recognizing how the various units of the

organization depend on one another and how
changes in any one part affect all the others

a manager deals with the relationship of the

organization to its environment: the community;
political, social, and economic forces of the nation
as a whole

for top-level management, conceptual skill is a

priority because executive managers have the most
contact with the outside world
40

Managerial Skills...

All levels of managers use the three types of skills

in performing management work but in different
degree

the senior manager is vitally concerned with

visualizing the complex relationships in the
organization - conceptual skills

the low level manager, may be constantly

required to make decisions on the basis of
technical knowledge of procedures

the human skill is critical and equally important

for all levels of managers
41

Management skills by levels of management (Katz

1955)

Top
Conceptual
Middle

Front
line

Human relation

Technical

42

Managing and leading: whats the

difference?

leadership can be defined as the process in which

one engages others to set and achieve a common
goal, often an organizationally defined goal (Robbins
and Judge, 2010).

management can be defined as the process of

accomplishing predetermined objectives through the
effective use of human, financial, and technical
resources (Longest Jr., Rakich, and Darr, 2000)

leadership is concerned with setting a direction for

change, developing a vision for the future, while
management consists of implementing those goals
through planning, budgeting, staffing (Kotter 1990)
43

Managing vs. Leading...

Leaders set the strategic vision and

mobilize the efforts towards its
realization while good managers
ensure effective organization and
utilization of resources to achieve
results and meet the aims. (WHO,
2007)

leading and managing contribute

different things.

When you manage well; you ensure that

processes and procedures, staff, and
44

Managing vs. Leading...

When you lead well, you enable others to face

challenges to creating the future that you all
envision

You help them to overcome obstacles that stand

in the way of desired results and encourage them
to adapt to changing conditions

Management skills the skills required to manage

resources in order to deliver a task, product or
services

Leadership skills the skills required to engage

with, motivate and persuade people to buy-in to a
vision, objective or goal
45

Managing vs. Leading...

Managing is focused on making sure present

operations are going well

Leading is about the future

It is involved in the creation of work that

generates new energy or reactivates
untapped skills that have lain dormant

We define managing as planning and using

resources efficiently to produce intended
results, We define leading as mobilizing
others to envision and realize a better future
46

Managing vs. Leading...

A Manager is a formally appointed and

authorized individual in an organization or
system to direct and support others to do
their work effectively, oversee resource
utilization and accountable for work results

A Leader is an individual in a team capable

of influencing (successfully persuade others
to follow their advice, suggestion or order)
group activities towards goal formulation and
achievement
47

Managing vs. Leading...

Leading and managing are complementary to

reach for and achieve results

We did not separate leaders from managers

This approach is based on the belief that

improvements in health care are made by
managers who lead and manage well

Leadership practices improved through a process

of facing challenges and receiving feedback and
support

By using this process, managers develop the

leadership abilities of their staff
48

Developing managers who lead

The natural process of leadership development,

involves facing challenges while receiving
feedback and support

Leadership Development Triangle

Developing managers who lead

What happens if a person faces a

challenge without receiving appropriate
feedback and support from others?
could be overwhelmed

What is the result of giving people a

challenge with too much feedback?
might use the feedback and not their
own ideas and initiative, we frustrate
them

What is the result of giving them too

much support? might not feel the need
to stretch themselves, making them
dependent
50

Leading, managing and

governing practices

Leading, managing and governing are

complementary to reach for and achieve results.

This approach is based on the belief that

improvements in health care are made by managers
who lead, manage and govern well

Managers who lead, manage and govern should

apply the 12 Leading, managing and governing
practices
Applying these practices consistently leads to strong
organizational capacity, better health services and
ultimately, lasting improvements in peoples health

51

Leading, managing and governing

practices
Leading practices

Scanning

Focusing

Aligning and Mobilizing

Inspiring
Managing practices

Planning

Organizing

Implementing

Monitoring and Evaluation

Governing practices

Cultivate accountability

Engage with stakeholders

Set shared direction

Steward resources

52

Scanning

Scanning involves getting information so you can act

on it
A critical skill for scanning is listening to others
looking for feedback from clients, colleagues,
supervisors, communities - adjustments to strategies &
plans
identify client and stakeholder needs and priorities
recognize trends, opportunities, and risks that affect
the organization
look for best practices
identify staff capacities and constraints
know yourself, your staff, and your organization
values, strengths, and weaknesses
Organizational outcome
Managers have up-to-date, valid knowledge of their
53
clients, the organization, and its context; they know

Focusing

managers who lead focus their limited time,

energy, and resources on priority actions
use what you have learned from scanning for
focusing
resources are nearly always insufficient or scarce
managing your time is focusing, because time is
a scarce resource.
develop the crucial ability to
identify critical challenges
determine key priorities for action
create a common picture of desired results
Organizational outcome

Organizations work is directed by well-defined mission,

54
strategy, and priorities

Aligning and mobilizing

ensure congruence of values, mission, strategy,

structure, systems, and daily actions
facilitate teamwork
unite key stakeholders around an inspiring vision
link goals with rewards and recognition
enlist stakeholders to commit resources
the essential skill needed for this practice is being able
to connect and work with others toward a
common vision, crossing boundaries of gender,
professional status, language, cultural background, or
politics
Organizational outcome
internal and external stakeholders understand and
support the organization goals and have mobilized
55
resources to reach these goals

Inspiring

match deeds to words

demonstrate honesty in interactions
show trust and confidence in staff, acknowledge
the contributions of others
provide staff with challenges, feedback, and
support
be a model of creativity, innovation, and learning
encourage people to be the best they can be
Organizational outcome

Organization displays a climate of continuous learning

and staff show commitment, even when setbacks occur
Be a role model
Actions DO speak louder than words
56

Planning

Involves the logical sequencing of activities and

resources needed to achieve stated objectives.
Without plans, your work environment will be chaotic
and performance will be haphazard.
Set short and long-term organizational goals and
performance objectives
Develop multiyear and annual plans
allocate adequate resources (money, people, and
materials)
anticipate and reduce risks
Organizational outcome
Organization has defined results, assigned
resources, and an operational plan
57

Organizing

ensures that resources are available at the right

time, in the right place, and in the right quantities to
get the work done
making sure that you have in place the systems,
procedures, and processes that make it possible to
execute assigned tasks for staff.
ensure a structure that provides accountability and
delineates authority
strengthen work processes to implement the plan
align staff capacities with planned activities
Organizational outcome
Organization has functional structures, systems, and
processes for efficient operations; staff are organized
and aware of job responsibilities and expectations
58

Implementing

integrate systems and coordinate work flow

balance competing demands
routinely use data for decision-making
coordinate activities with other programs and
sectors
adjust plans and resources as circumstances
change
Organizational outcome
Activities are carried out efficiently,
effectively, and responsively
59

Monitoring and Evaluating

monitor and reflect on progress against

plans
provide feedback
identify needed changes
improve work processes, procedures, and
tools
Organizational outcome

Organization continuously updates information

about the status of achievements and results,
and applies ongoing learning and knowledge
60

Cultivate accountability
Sustain a culture of integrity and openness that
serves the public interest
Establish, practice and enforce codes of conduct
upholding ethical and moral integrity
Embed accountability into the institution
Make all reports on finances, activities, plans, and
outcomes available to the public and the
stakeholders
Establish a formal consultation mechanism
through which people may voice concerns and
provide feedback.
Organizational
outcome

Those who govern are accountable to those who are

governed
The decision making is open and transparent
61
The decisions serve public interest

Engage with stakeholders

Identify and invite participation from all parties affected

by the governing process
Empower marginalized voices, including women, by
giving them a voice in formal decision-making
structures and processes
Create and maintain a safe space for the sharing of
ideas
Provide an independent conflict resolution mechanism
Elicit and respond to all forms of feedback in a timely
manner
Establish alliances for joint action at whole-ofgovernment and whole-of-society levels.
Organizational outcome
the institution has an inclusive and collaborative
62
process for making decisions to achieve the shared

Set shared direction

Prepare, document and implement a shared action

plan to achieve the mission and vision of the
organization

Set up accountability mechanisms for achieving

the mission and vision using measurable indicators

Advocate on behalf of stakeholders needs and

concerns

Oversee the realization of the shared goals and the

desired outcomes
Organizational outcome
the institution has a shared action plan capable
of achieving objectives and outcomes jointly
defined by those who govern and those
who are
63

Steward resources

Ethically and efficiently raise and deploy the resources

to accomplish the mission and the vision and to serve
stakeholders and beneficiaries
Collect, analyze and use information and evidence for
making decisions
Align resources in the health system and its design with
the shared goals
Build capacity to use resources in a way that maximizes
the health and well-being of the public
Organizational outcome
The institution has adequate resources for achieving
the shared goals and, the resources are raised and
used ethically and efficiently to achieve the desired
objectives and outcomes
64

Integrating the practices of leading

and managing

Leading and managing do not form distinct,

sequential processes that you complete
separately
The leading practices are not independent of the
managing practices
Both aim at achieving good results and
responding effectively to challenges
Facing challenges requires you to scan, focus,
and plan
After scanning your environment to identify your
challenges, you focus on a few priority challenges
and make a plan to address them
65

Integrating the practices of

leading and managing...

Once you have a plan that addresses your challenges,

you need to align and mobilize your stakeholders,
staff, and resources, organize your team and the
work, and implement the plan to produce results

Throughout this process, you inspire your group by

enabling your staff to act on their commitment,
creativity, and learning

The energy to do the work is partially fuelled by

inspiring people

Lessons learned about effectiveness and performance

are cycled back into new plans through monitoring
and evaluation
66

Integrated leading and managing

process

67

Linkage between leadership,

management, and governance

Leadership, management, and governance are

interdependent, overlapping, and mutually
reinforcing

All three work together to achieve a desired

result:

effective leadership is a prerequisite for good

governance

effective management is a critical support for

good governance,

good governance provide purpose, resources,

and accountability in support of both leadership
and management
68

Figure: Leading, Managing, and

Governing for Results Model

The three circles represent the core components of

strong and well-functioning organizations
69

Leader Shift - Looking at

your mindset and values

If you look to lead, invest at least 40

percent of your time managing your
ethics, character, principles, purpose,
motivation, and conduct.
Dee Hock

Our behaviors are anchored in how we

think

Therefore, attitudes are important, too

Leader shift is the attitudinal and

70 make to
behavioral shifts that leaders can

Shift your mindset

To become a manager who leads, you

need to gradually shift your mindset

To shift your mindset, it is critical to know

your values, because they will influence
the kind of future you can create and will
guide and sustain you on your journey

A mindset is a habitual way of interpreting

and responding to situations
Examine your beliefs and assumptions
71

Shift perspective
FROM . . . . . .

TO . . .

individual heroics

collaborative actions

despair and cynicism hope and possibility

blaming others for
problems
scattered,
disconnected
activities
self-absorption

taking responsibility
for challenges
purposeful,
interconnected
actions
generosity and
concern for the
common good
72

Leader shift
1.

From heroic leadership to collaborative

action
work based on the heroic actions that you take
alone, to collaborative actions that build on the
strength of groups
the challenges you face cannot be addressed if
you think that you must and are the only one
who can solve all problems
developing and acknowledging everyone on the
team is critical
to move toward collaborative action, ensure that
everyone is clear about and has agreed to their
roles and responsibilities, and then accountable for
fulfilling them
73
check that you are delegating tasks that
you do

Leader shift
2. From despair and pessimism to optimism &
hope

a state of despair or cynicism, where you see insurmountable

problems and obstacles, to a place of hope and dreams,
where you see possibilities to make things better;

It is hard to attract followers if you preach a message of

despair and powerlessness

Yet most planning methodologies start by listing all the

problems, which can quickly overwhelm a group and feed a
feeling of helplessness

This leader shift requires that you develop the leadership

practice of inspiring your staff and breathing life into their
work
74

Leader shift
3. From blaming others to taking on
challenges

Reframing an issue from being a problem

that is caused by and must be solved by
others to being a challenge that you will
take on

stop feeling like a helpless victim and

become an agent of change

Consider how you might be contributing to

problems

Use proactive language rather than reactive

language
75

Leader shift
4. From disconnected activities and busyness
to concerted and purposeful action

unrelated activities carried out for their own sake,

to purposeful work directed toward achieving
results that matter;

Bring your team members together and use their

diverse skills and perspectives to solve problems as
they occur

people who are preoccupied with their specific area

of responsibility often lack the time to share ideas
with people working in other relevant areas and
miss opportunities to work together and contribute
to each others objectives
76

Leader shift
5. From a preoccupation with oneself to
generosity and a concern for the
common good

Preoccupation with yourself and ways to satisfy

your needs, to a place where you can generously
and compassionately serve a greater good and
inspire others to do the same

As long as you remain focused on yourself, your

self-absorption will interfere with your ability to
provide the stewardship that the health system
needs from you and can no longer be effective

check whether your attitudes and actions are

helping the people you are serving or distracting
77
you from helping them

Thank
you!!
78