Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Social Science
and
Management
Prof. P. Veni,
Dept. of Commerce & Management Studies,
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Research
Research is collection of information
to test new ideas or disprove old
ones.
In scientific terminology research is
an endeavour to discover facts by
scientific methods and is a course of
critical investigation.
An original investigation to the
existing stock of knowledge, making
for its advancement.
Research (Contd.)
Definition:
A research comprises of defining and
redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis (or) suggesting solutions,
collecting, organising and evaluating data,
making decisions and reaching conclusions
to decide whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
Clifford Woody
2.Multidisciplinar
y
Behaviour
Science
Geography
History
Law
Linguistics
Psychology
Public
Administrati
on
Social Sciences
3.STEM
Sciences
(Natural/Life)
Commerce
Technology
Management Engineering
Anthropolog Mathematics
y
Economics
Sociology
Political
Studies
Social Work
Education
Demography
4.Humanities
History
Literature
Languages
Library
Studies
Social Research
Social research examines a societys
attitudes, assumptions, beliefs,
trends, stratifications and rules
Social research is a systematic
method of exploring, analysing &
conceptualising human life in order
to extend, correct or verify
knowledge of human behaviour and
social life.
Modify Theory
Create Theory
Policy/Strategy
Organization Theory
Organization Behaviour
Human Resource Management
Marketing
Production & Operations Management
Finance
2. ONTOLOGY
3. METHODOLOGY
1. Epistemology
It concerns clarification of researchers beliefs
about how knowledge is created?
Views on Epistemology
Normative Approach (or) Positivism
Research creates knowledge by building on the
foundations of accepted and rationally defensible
theory
2. Ontology
It concerns about the nature of the world and
human beings in social contexts (Bryman., 2001)
Ontology assures that social phenomena can be
studied objectively apart from the people who
make it.
In cut-short
Different researchers may have different conclusions
from one study.
3. Methodology
Methodological assumptions focus on analysis of the
methods used for gathering research data.
(Louis Kohen, Lawrence Manion & Keith Morrision, 2001)
3. Methodology (Contd.)
Research Methodology: Approaches
In social sciences research, the researchers commonly had two
basic approaches to conduct their respective research works.
They are:
1. Quantitative Approach
2. Qualitative Approach
Quantitative Approach:
The quantitative approach involves the generation of data in
quantitative form and which can be subjected to rigours
quantitative analysis ina formal and rigid fashion.
Observe & Interpret the Data
3. Methodology (Contd.)
Qualitative Approach:
The qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions & behaviour.
Research in qualitative approach is a function of researchers insights &
impressions
Investigate into the data
Objectives of Research
Exploratory Research
To gain familiarity with a phenomena
To achieve new insights into it
Descriptive Research
To portray the characteristics of a particular situation
or group
Diagnostic Research
To determine the frequency with which it is associated
with something else, when something occurs.
THEORY
DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
INDUCTIVE
REASONING
DATA
Reality: What we observe
Triangulation
(McGrath, 1982)
According to McGraths words, it is not possible to do an
unflawed study. Any research method chosen will have inherent
flaws and the choice of that method will limit the conclusions that
can be drawn.
Its therefore, eventual to obtain corroborating evidence from
using variety of methods
Triangulationis a powerful technique that facilitates validation
of data through cross verification from two or more sources. In
particular, it refers to the application and combination of
severalresearchmethods in the study of the same phenomenon.
Triangulation (Contd.)
(McGrath, 1982)
Triangulation is an approach to research that
uses a combination of more than one research
strategy in a single investigation.
Triangulation can be a useful tool for qualitative
as well as quantitative researchers.
Used with care, it contributes to the
completeness and confirmation of findings
necessary in qualitative research investigations.
Types of
Triangulation
Data Triangulation
Time, space, person
Method Triangulation
Design
Data collection
Benefits of
Triangulation
Improves ability of
researchers to draw
conclusions for their
studies
Investigator Triangulation
Recommend their
Theory Triangulation
Multiple Triangulation
Research Methodology:
Validity
Every research must successfully pass
through the following validities
Internal Validity
External Validity
Construct Validity
Statistical Conclusion Validity
Internal Validity
Internal validity of a research is concerned
about the causality.
A cause and effect relationship can only be
asserted if theres a true co-ordination
between the variables under investigation
Data collection procedures used to
demonstrate that the cause preceded the
effect and alternative explanations have
been discarded
External Validity
External validity refers to generalising
across times, settings and individuals.
External validity relies upon establishing
a true representation of the relationship
between two constructs and establishing
that the relationship is generalised to
different populations, measures and
circumstances
Construct Validity
Concerns how well the measures
employed fit the theories for which a test
is designed.
Researcher must test his research work
for measurement flaws.
Measures and manipulations must be
faithful representations of constructs in
order for valid inferences to be made.
Storing data
Is your data sensitive?
Can it put people at risk if it falls into the
hands of certain people?
How are you going to protect your data,
your interests and the interests of your
informants?
Research Methods
Research methods in social sciences are often
divided into two main types:
Quantitative Research
Methods
Qualitative Research
Methods
Source: Quoted from : Maginn, P.J. (2006) Urban Policy Analysis Through a Qualitative Lens: Overview to Special Issue, Urban Policy and Research, Vol 24(1) pp. 1
Franklin, A. (1986) Ethnography and housing studies, Housing Studies, 5(2), pp. 92111.
Punch, K. (1998) Introduction to Social Research (London: Sage).
Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Lewis, J.& Dillon, L. (2003) Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for Assessing Research Evidence,
Occasional Papers Series No. 2 (London: Government Chief Social Researchers Office).
Winchester, H. P. M. (2000) Qualitative research and its place in human geography, in: I. Hay (Ed.) Qualitative Research Methods
n Human Geography, pp. 122 (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is the numerical
representation and manipulation of
observations for the purpose of describing
and explaining the phenomena that those
observations reflect. It is used in a wide
variety of natural and social sciences,
including physics, biology, psychology,
sociology and geology
Cohen (1980), quantitative research is
defined as social research that employs
empirical methods and empirical statements.
Answering Questions
Quantitative Research attempts to
answer questions by
ascribing importance (significance) to
numbers or sizes or reactions and results
Pros of Quantitative
Research?
Clear interpretations
Make sense of and organize
perceptions
Careful scrutiny (logical, sequential,
controlled)
Reduce researcher bias
Results may be understood by
individuals in other disciplines
Cons of Quantitative
Research?
Can not assist in understanding
issues in which basic variables have
not been identified or clarified
Only 1 or 2 questions can be studied
at a time, rather than the whole of an
event or experience
Complex issues (emotional response,
personal values, etc.) can not always
be reduced to numbers
Correlation
Trend analysis
Exploratory research
Descriptive research
Experimental
research
Model/Test
Effect statistics
numeric
numeric
regression
numeric
nominal
T test, ANOVA
nominal
nominal
chi-square
nominal
numeric
categorical
Descriptive
statistics
Comparative
objectives/
hypotheses
Inferential
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Can be applied to any measurements
(quantitative or qualitative)
Descriptive Statistics
Number
Frequency Count
Percentage
Deciles and quartiles
Measures of Central
Tendency (Mean,
Midpoint, Mode)
Variability
Variance and
standard deviation
Graphs
Normal Curve
Inferential Statistics
Allows for comparisons across variables
i.e. is there a relation between ones
occupation and their reason for using the
public library?
Hypothesis Testing
Levels of significance
The level of significance is the
predetermined level at which a null
hypothesis is not supported. The most
common level is p < .05
P =probability
< = less than (> = more than)
Error Type
Type I error
Reject the null
hypothesis when it is
really true
Type II error
Fail to reject the null
hypothesis when it is
really false
Probability
By using inferential statistics to make
decisions, we can report the probability
that we have made a Type I error
(indicated by the p value we report)
By reporting the p value, we alert readers
to the odds that we were incorrect when
we decided to reject the null hypothesis
Particular Tests
Chi-square test of independence: two
variables (nominal and nominal,
nominal and ordinal, or ordinal and
ordinal)
Affected by number of cells, number of cases
2-tailed distribution= null hypothesis
1-tailed distribution= directional hypothesis
Cramers V, Phi
Spearman rho
More tests
t-test
Test the difference between two sample means for
significance
pretest to posttest
Relates to research design
Perhaps used for information literacy instruction
Analysis of variance
Regression analysis (including step-wise
regression)
More tests
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests the
difference(s) among two or more means
It can be used to test the difference between
two means
So use t-test or ANOVA?
KEY: ANOVA also can be used to test the
difference among more than two means in a
single testwhich cannot be done with a t test
More tests
While correlation and regression both indicate
association between variables, correlation
studies assess the strength of that association
Regression analysis, which examines the
association from a different perspective, yields
an equation that uses one variable to explain
the variation in another variable.
Regression is used to predict the value of one
variable by knowing the value of another
variable
H0 : m1 = m2
Always testing the null hypothesis
H- Naught
H1 : m1 = m2
H- One
Testing of Hypothesis
S c ie n t i f ic k n o w le d g e
R e a s o n a n d i n t u it io n
Formulate
hypotheses
E m p ir i c a l o b s e r v a t io n
Collect data to
test
hypotheses
Formulate
hypotheses
Collect data to
test hypotheses
CHANCE
Accept hypothesis
Reject hypothesis
Testing of hypotheses
Null hypothesis H0 -
there is no difference
Types of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis:
Denoted with (H0 )
This a statement or pressumption which a researcher
is going to consider it in the research and disprove it.
Its a statement written in a negative or opposite
manner to the alternative hypothesis ( H1)
Now a days, this null hypothesis is being coined in
either of the ways i.e., negative or positive
But, when we consider the null hypothesis being
accepted, in research studies, misleads the actual
intentions of the researchers.
Formulate Hypothesis
Fix Level of Significance ()
Calculate Test Statistic
Note Down the Critical Value
Compare the Calculated Test Statistic with
Standard Critical Value and Make Decision
1. Formulate Hypothesis
Frame null and alternate hypothesis for
your research work
Points to consider while framing research
hypothesis
Predictive Statement
Clear, Precise, Simple Terms,
Limited Scope, Capable of Being Tested,
Consistent With Facts, Reasonable Time Frame
Relationship With Variables
2. Level of Significance ()
Denoted by (Alpha; Greek Alphabet)
the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis in a statistical test when it is true
aka significance level
For example, a significance level of 0.05
indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a
difference exists when there is no actual
difference.
3. Test Statistic
Every member of the
population has the
same chance of being
selected in the sample
Population
estimation
Random sample
Test Statistic =
4. Critical Value
In hypothesis testing, acritical
valueis a point on the test
distribution that is compared to the
test statistic to determine whether to
reject the null hypothesis. If the
absolutevalueof your test statistic
is greater than the critical value,
you can declare statistical
significance and reject the null
hypothesis.
Two-Tailed Curve
5. Decision Making
In hypothesis testing, there are two
ways to determine whether there is
enough evidence from the sample to
reject H0or to fail to reject H0. The
most common way is to compare the
p-value with a pre-specified value of
, where is the probability of
rejecting H0when H0is true.
However, you can also compare the
calculated value of the test statistic
2.5%
80
95%
2.5%
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
23.8
28.8
33.8
38.8
43.8
48.8
53.8
58.8
AGE
If our observed age value lies outside the green lines, the probability of getting a value
as extreme as this if the null hypothesis is true is < 5%
- level of significance
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