PETE 220

RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

PERMEABILITY

FALL 2016 2017

Dr. Mahmut Parlaktuna, Dr. alar
Snayu
mahmut@metu.edu.tr,

DEFINITION
The previous chapter adressed porosity,
basically the storage capacity of reservoir
rock.
However, having only a higher porosity is
not sufficient because the reservoir fluids
have to flow so they can be brought from
reservoir to the surface.
This particular property, denoted by k, is
called permeability.

DEFINITION

DEFINITION
Unlike porosity, which is a static
property of the porous medium,
permeability is basically a flow property
(dynamic) and can only be
characterized by flow experiments in a
reservoir rock.
This chapter discusses the absolute
permeability, of the porous medium
when the reservoir rock is 100 %

DEFINITION
In 1856 Henry DARCY, a French
engineer, published his work in
improving the water-works in Dijon and,
in particular, on the design of a filter
large enough to process the towns daily
water requirement. Darcy designed a
filter, shown schematically shown in the
following slide.

DEFINITION

DEFINITION
The equipment consisted of an iron
cylinder containing an unconsolidated
sand pack, about a meter length, which
was held between two permeable
screens. Manometers were connected
into the cylinder immediately above and
below the sand pack.

DEFINITION
By flowing water through the sand pack
Darcy established that, for any flow
rate, the velocity of flow was directly
proportional to the difference in
manometric heights, the relationship
being

Q
dh
u constant
A
dL

DEFINITION
Further experiments and analysis;
especially by King HUBBERT, showed
that the constant includes the fluid
density and viscosity, and that the
residual constant has dimensions of
acceleration and rock geometry.
2
Constant (Nd ) g

Q
dh
2
u (Nd ) g
A
dL

DEFINITION
where
N = final constant of proportionality
and incorporates a shape factor
d = characteristic length dimension
(e.g. mean throat diameter)
= density of fluid
= viscosity of fluid

DEFINITION
Basic equations of fluid mechanics apply
the statement of energy conservation to
a flowing fluid, so that if no energy
losses occur, an energy balance on a
unit mass of flowing fluid is given as;
2
u1

2
u2

P1
P2
gz1

gz 2
1
2 2
2

DEFINITION
The three terms can be considered to be
the energy components of the fluid
liable to vary during a flow process:
the pressure energy
the potential energy of position
the kinetic energy

DEFINITION
The sum of these three terms can be
considered to be a potential per unit
mass of fluid.

P
u
gz

DEFINITION
A gradient in potential can also be
defined which is a measure of the
irreversible energy losses.
2

d P
u
d
gz
dL
2
dL

DEFINITION
If the potential terms are divided
throughout by g, the acceleration due to
gravity, then the resultant terms have
the dimension of length 2

d P
u
dh
z

dL g
2g
dL

dh d
g

dL dL

DEFINITION
Q
dh
2
u (Nd ) g
A
dL

dh d
g

dL dL

The change in kinetic energy of fluid in

porous media is generally negligible,
therefore the potential term becomes:

gz

DEFINITION
Q
2 d
u (Nd )
A
dL
The group constant Nd2 is named as
permeability and symbolized by k. It is
taken as the characteristic of porous
medium controlling fluid flow within the
medium.

d
Q
u k
A
dL

HORIZONTAL FLOW
For horizontal flow with negligible
dz

kinetic energy
change and
dL

potential gradient equation and the

potential gradient becomes

d P
d

dL
dL

HORIZONTAL FLOW
For an incompressible fluid flow (or for
small pressure interval for which an
average density may be used),

dP
d

dL
dL

Q
k dP
u
A
dL

This is the defining equation for the

measurement of permeability by flow
measurement.

HORIZONTAL FLOW
For the oil industry the unit adopted is
termed the DARCY, and is defined as:
A rock has a permeability of 1 DARCY if
a potential gradient of 1 atm/cm is
induced a flow rate of 1 cm3/sec through
a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2 of a fluid
of viscosity 1 cp.

HORIZONTAL FLOW
It has the dimension of L2

L3 M
LT
T
Q

2
k

A dP

dL

L M L T
2

If absolute length unit is adopted, then:

1 Darcy = 1000 mD 10-8 cm2

HORIZONTAL
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOW
P1

P2

Q
k dP
u
A
dL

The above equation can be integrated

between the limits of length from 0 to L
and pressure from P1 (upstream) to P2
(downstream) for an incompressible
fluid flow case

HORIZONTAL
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOW
Assumptions:
- Core is 100 % saturated with the
flowing fluid
- The flowing fluid is incompressible
- Horizontal, steady-state flow
- The flowing fluid does not react with
the porous medium

HORIZONTAL
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOW
P
L
Q
k
dL dP

A0
P1
2

Q
k
L 0 P2 P1
A

Q
k P

A
L

HORIZONTAL
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOWQ P (atm- P (atm- Q/A
Test
g)

g)

(cm/sec)

(P1-P2)/L
(atm/cm)

Q1

P1,1

P2,1

Q2

P1,2

P2,2

Q3

P1,3

P2,3

Q4

P1,4

P2,4

Q5

P1,5

P2,5

No

(cm3/sec
)

Q
k P

A
L

Plot Q/A vs P/L

HORIZONTAL
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOW
dP/L
(atm/cm)
0.0
0.9
2.1
2.7
4.0

Q/A
(cm/sec)
0.0
1.9
4.2
6.1
7.9

Slope = k/

INCLINED FLOW
Q
k P

A
L

Applicable to a
horizontal flow

An inclined or
dipping flow

INCLINED FLOW

Q
k P

gsin
A
L

UNITS

Q
k P
C
A
L

Parameter

Darcy Units

Oil-field units

cm3/sec

bbl/day

cm2

ft2

Darcy

md

cP

cP

atm

psi

cm

ft

1.12710-3

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Compressible fluid flow

Density of the fluid is not

constant
= f(P,T)
Volumetric flow rate is not
constant
but
mass flow rate is constant

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
P1

P2

Mass flow rate in x direction per area u x

Insert Darcy equation

Q
k dP
u x
A
dx

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
For a slightly compressible fluid:
The Equation of State (EOS) can be
expressed as
CP
oe
where:

C = isothermal coefficient of
compressibility of fluid, 1/psi
o = density of fluid at reference
pressure

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Differentiating with respect to x,
d
CP dP
C oe
dx
dx
The terms in the bracket at the RHS is
the fluid density itself, therefore:

dP 1 d

dx C dx

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Substituting into Darcys equation,
Q
k 1 d

A
C dx

By definition,
Q = m
where m is the mass flow rate.
Separating variables,

m
k
dx
d
A
C

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Integrating,
L

m
k
dx
d

A0
C
1

kA 1 2
m
C
L

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Inlet and outlet densities of the fluid, 1
and 2, can be written as follows by
approximating the exponential function
with Taylor series expansion
1 o o CP1

and

2 o o CP2

1 2 o C P1 P2

HORIZONTAL SLIGHTLY
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
kA o C P1 P2
m oQo
C
L
kA P1 P2
Qo

The RHS of this equation has the same

form of the equation for incompressible
fluid flow. The only difference is that the
flow rate that is obtained is the flow rate
at the reference pressure at which the

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
P1

P2

Mass flow rate in x direction per area u x

Insert Darcy equation

Q
k dP
u x
A
dx

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Consider flow of an ideal gas in porous
media.
Since gas is highly compressible, mass
flow rate is constant rather than
volumetric flow rate.
1Q1 = 2Q2= bQb= Q
Where, 1,2 and b stands for inlet, outlet

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
For an ideal gas at isothermal conditions
P1V1 = P2V2= PbVb= PV
or
P1Q1 = P2Q2= PbQb= PQ
Combining
Pb Q b PQ

b Q b Q

b
Pb

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Darcy equation becomes

Qb
k
P dP
b
b
A
Pb dx
Cancelling b and rearranging

Pb Q b
k dP
P
A
dx

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Separating variables and integrating

Pb Q b
k P1 P2
L
A

Solving for flow rate

kA P1 P2

Qb
2 L
Pb

kA 2
2
Q b Pb
P1 P2
2L

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Lets define arithmetic average pressure
as

P1 P2
P
2
Then

Pb Q b PQ

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW

kA 2
2
Pb Q b PQ
P1 P2
2L

kA
P1 P2
P1 P2
P1 P2

2
L
2

which, after simplifying, yields,

P1 P2
Q kA
L

HORIZONTAL
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW
Thus, the flow rates of ideal gases can
be computed from the equations for
incompressible liquids as long as the
volumetric flow rate is defined at the
algebraic mean pressure.

P1 P2
Q kA
L

RADIAL FLOW
Let us consider the
radial flow of fluids
through a porous
medium, as shown at
right. In this case, the
pressure, Pe is constant
at the external
boundary, re. Pw
represents the flowing
steady state bottom
hole pressure, at the

RADIAL FLOW
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
2 kh Pe Pw
r
ln e
rw

where, the Darcy

units are: Q cc/sec,
k darcy, h cm, P
atm, cP and r
cm.

0.00708kh Pe Pw
Q
re

ln
rw

where, the field units

are: Q bbl/day, k
md, h ft, P psi,
cP
and r ft.

RADIAL FLOW
SLIGHTLY COMPRESSIBLE
FLUID
2 k h Pe Pw
Qo
re

ln
rw

where, Qo to be the flow rate at the

reference pressure Po at which the
density of fluid o is defined

RADIAL FLOW
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
2kh Pe Pw
Q
ln re / rw
where,Q
is the volumetric flow rate
of an ideal gas at the algebraic
mean pressure,

Pe Pw
P
2

VELOCITY DEFINITIONS
For flow through porous media, we
can define two kinds of velocities
Superficial velocity (Darcy
velocity):

Q
u
A

= flow rate /area normal to flow

VELOCITY DEFINITIONS
Interstitial velocity (Front
velocity):

Q
u
v

A
= superficial velocity/porosity

AVERAGING OF
PERMEABILITIES

Absolute permeability expressions

derived in previous slides are based
on a uniform or continuous value of
permeability between inlet and
outlet faces. However, most
reservoir rocks have spatial
variations of permeability.
For example, reservoir rocks may
contain distinct layers, blocks, or
concentric rings of fixed
permeability. In these cases, the

AVERAGING OF
PERMEABILITIES
PARALLEL BEDS

Linear flow
Radial flow
Obviously,
the total flow rate, Qt, is
the sum of individual flow rate passing
t Q1 Q2 Q3
through each Qlayer,

AVERAGING OF
PERMEABILITIES
PARALLEL
BEDS
Writing the Darcys equation for each
flow rate
kA(P1 P2 ) k1A1 (P1 P2 ) k 2 A 2 (P1 P2 ) k 3A 3 (P1 P2 )

L
L
L
L

Cancelling pressure difference terms

yields,
kA k1A1 k 2 A 2 k 3A 3
k i Ai
k
Ai

AVERAGING OF
PERMEABILITIES
PARALLEL
BEDS
If, in addition, all beds have the same
width,
Then

A h

kihi
k
hi
Valid for both linear and radial flow
cases

AVERAGING OF
PERMEABILITIES
SERIES BEDS

Linear flow
flow flow rate, since the total
For Radial
a constant
pressure drop is composed of individual
pressure drops across each bed, (P1-P2)
= P + P + P

AVERAGING OF
PERMEABILITIES
SERIES
For linearBEDS
flow
QL QL1 QL2 QL3

kA k1A1 k 2 A 2 k 3A 3

For equal cross-sections

L
k
L i /k i

AVERAGING OF
PERMEABILITIES
SERIES
For radialBEDS
flow

log(r e /rw )
k
log(r i /ri 1 )

ki

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
Discussions on absolute permeability
so far were dealt with matrix
permeability.

However many reservoir rocks contain

solution channels or artificial
fractures.
Therefore, we need to take into
account three permeability elements;
the matrix, channel, and fracture

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
Matrix permeability refers to the flow
in primary pore spaces of rock.
Fracture or channel permeability
refers to the flow in cracks or breaks
in the rock or in the so-called
secondary network.

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
The equations for channel
permeability are based on Poiseuilles
equation for fluid flow through
capillary tubes
The assumptions of the equation are
that the flow is laminar viscous and
incompressible and the flow is through
a constant circular cross-section that
is substantially longer than its

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
4

r P Ar P
Q

8L
8L
where:
P = pressure drop
L = length of pipe
= dynamic viscosity
Q = volumetric flow rate
r = radius
A = cross-sectional area

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
Equating Darcy and Poiseuille
equations

Ar P kAP
Q

8L
L
2

The permeability of a channel can be

defined as
2

r
k Channel
8

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
The fracture permeability
equation can be
developed by comparing
flow equations for a
simple geometry of slots
of fine clearances with
that of porous media

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
For flow through slots of
fine clearances

where
= interstitial flow velocity
= u/
h = thickness (aperture) of
the slot

PERMEABILITY OF
FRACTURES AND CHANNELS
For the Darcy equation

Combining two equations

2

k Fracture

12

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
Laboratory measurement of absolute
permeability usually involves the direct
application of the Darcy equation.
It is based on mesurement of individual
parameters:
- Flow rate,
- Pressure drop,
- Sample dimensions,
- Fluid properties

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
Prior to using core plug
samples for permeability
measurements, the
residual fluids or in situ
formation fluids are
removed so that the
sample is 100 %
saturated by air.
In general, cores are

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
Considering the fact that absolute
permeability can only be measured by
conducting a flow experiment in a porous
medium, gases or non-reactive liquids
are commonly used as a fluid phase.
The core is inserted in a core holder of a
permeability device such as shown
below

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
An appropriate pressure drop is adjusted
across the core, and the rate of fluid
through the plug is measured.
For conditions of incompressible fluid
flow, the data should plot a straight line
(Q/A versus P/L), passing through the
origin. The slope gives permeabilityviscosity ratio, k/.

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY
dP/L
(atm/cm)
0.0
0.9
2.1
2.7
4.0

Q/A
(cm/sec)
0.0
1.9
4.2
6.1
7.9

Slope = k/

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
For gas flow where flow rate is measured
at standard conditions, the relationship
between rate and pressure upstream and
downstream at isothermal conditions is
given by:
P1 Q 1 = P 2 Q 2
For P2 = 1 atm, then Q1 = Q2 / P1

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
The linear Darcy relationship for gas flow
was previously obtained as:

kA 2
2
Pb Q b PQ
P1 P2
2L

For standard conditions, Pb = Psc = 1atm.

Thus, the volumetric flow rate at
standard conditions becomes:

kA 2
2
Q sc
P1 P2
2L

LABORATORY
MEASUREMENT OF
ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
In practice, dry gas such as Air, N or He
2

is used in permeability measurements to

minimize fluid-rock reaction and for
convenience. In addition, the region
between the compliant sleeve and the
inner walls of the core holder is
subjected to a confining pressure (about
200 psi) in order to prevent the flow
along the long axis of the plug.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
As previously discussed, Darcys law can
be expressed as follows:
Q
k dP
u
A
dx

One expects a linear relationship

between Q/A and dP/dx when these are
plotted.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
The actual results are obtained as shown
below

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
Darcys law should give a straight line on
a plot of velocity versus negative
pressure gradient. The slope of the
straight line should be permeability
divided by viscosity. As can be seen from
previous slide, this is true only at a
certain interval, which is called Darcy
Flow.
At large and small velocities, deviations

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
At large velocities, there is an additional
contribution to the pressure gradient, at
a given velocity and the permeability
appears to decrease since the slope of
the line decreases.
At small velocities, there is again an
additional contribution to the pressure
gradient, but now the permeability
appears to increase.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
At large velocities, significant flow
separation occurs in the wake of the rock
grains as shown in the figure. A
considerable amount of flow energy is
spent in this reversal and the lost energy
manifests itself as an increase in the
pressure drop.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
To account for this additional pressure
drop, Darcys law is modified according to
the Forcheimer Equation.

dP

u u
dx
k

The last term takes into account the

additional pressure drop (also called
inertial, turbulence or high-velocity
Effects). This effect is important only in
very high velocity flows, as would be

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
At the other end of the spectrum, the
small velocity extreme, we see another
deviation from Darcys law, usually
referred to as gas slippage phenomenon
or also called the Klinkenberg Effect.
The gas slippage occurs when the
diameter of the capillary openings
approach the mean free path of the gas.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
Historically, Klinkenberg effect is thought
to be due to slippage of gas molecules at
the walls of the pores. What actually
happens is that at low pressures the
mean free path of the gas molecules
becomes the same as the pores. When
this happens, the notion of gas viscosity
becomes questionable. Rather than
modifying viscosity term, we represent
the effect as an increased permeability.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
The Klinkenberg effect is a function of the
gas with which permeability of a core
sample is determined because the mean
free path of the gas is a function of its
molecular size and kinetic energy. This
was clearly evident from Klinkenbergs
experiments using three different gases
of varying molecular sizes: hydrogen,
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
Frequently, Klinkenberg effect is obtained
from experimental measurements by
plotting apparent permeability versus
inverse mean pressure. The intercept of
such a plot is the true permeability and
the slope is the Klinkenberg factor. As can
be seen from previous figure that the
slope for different gases is different for
each gas studied and is highest for
hydrogen, which has the smallest mean

Vertical and horizontal plugs

Uniform size and shape

grains

kv kh

Uniform size but platy

grains

kh > kv