The pn Junction

Objective
Determine the properties of a pn junction including the
ideal current-voltage characteristics of the pn junction
diode.

The Equilibrium pn Junction

Figure a is a simplified block diagram of a pn junction.
The interface at x = 0 is called the metallurgical
junction.
A large density gradient in both the hole and electron
concentrations occurs across this junction.
Initially, there is a diffusion of holes from the p-region
into the n-region, and a diffusion of electrons from the
n-region into the p-region.

The Equilibrium pn Junction

The flow of holes from the p-region uncovers negatively
charged acceptor ions, and the flow of electrons from
the n-region uncovers positively charged donor ions.
This action creates a charge separation, which sets up
an electric field oriented in the direction from the
positive charge to the negative charge.

The Equilibrium pn Junction

Figure b shows the respective p-type and n-type doping
concentrations, assuming uniform doping ineach region,
as well as the minority carrier concentrations in each
region, assuming thermal equilibrium.
Figure c is a three-dimensional diagram of the pn
junction showing the cross-sectional area of the device.

The Equilibrium pn Junction

If no voltage is applied to the pn junction, the diffusion
of holes and electrons must eventually cease.
Thermal equilibrium occurs when the force produced by
the electric field and the force produced by the
density gradient exactly balance.
The positively charged region and the negatively
charged region comprise the space-charge region, or
depletion region, of the pn junction, in which there
are essentially no mobile electrons or holes.

The Equilibrium pn Junction

There
is a potential difference across that region called the

built-in potential barrier, or built-in voltage, and is given by

where VT kT/e, k = Boltzmanns constant, T = absolute

temperature, e = the magnitude of the electronic charge, and Na
and Nd are the net acceptor and donor concentrations in the pand n-regions, respectively. The parameter VT is called the
thermal voltage and is approximately VT = 0.026 V at room
temperature, T = 300 K.

Example 2.1
Calculate the built-in potential barrier of a pn junction.
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K, doped at Na
= 1016 cm3 in the p-region and Nd = 1017cm3 in the nregion.

Solution 2.1

Note: Because of the log function, the magnitude of Vbi is not a strong function of the doping

concentrations. Therefore, the value of Vbi for silicon pn junctions is usually within 0.1 to 0.2
V of this calculated value.

Example 2.2
Calculate Vbi for GaAs pn junction at T = 300K for Na =
1016 cm-3 and Nd = 1017 cm-3 (b) Repeat for Germanium
with the same doping concentrations.

Solution 2.2

Diode Space Charge Region Width

The total width of the depletion region wdo in terms of
the built-in potential is given by:

where: for silicon s = 11.7 o ; o = 8.85 x 10-14 F/cm

Electric Field Distribution

In terms of wdo

Example 2.3
Calculate the built-in potential and depletion-region width
for a silicon diode with NA = 1017/cm3 on the p-type side
and ND = 1020/cm3 on the n-type side.

Solution
2.3

Example 2.4
The parameters of a uniformly doped pn junction for
silicon semiconductor are: T = 27 oC, Na = 1016 cm-3, Nd
= 2 x 1015 cm-3. Find the depletion region width and the
maximum field.
Solution
2.4

Reverse-Biased pn Junction

Reverse-Biased pn Junction
Because of the additional positive and negative charges
induced in the spacecharge region with an increase in
reverse-bias voltage, junction capacitance, or
depletion layer capacitance is formed.

where Cjo is the junction capacitance at zero applied

voltage.

Example 2.5
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300K, with doping
concentrations of Na = 1016 cm3 and Nd = 1015 cm3.
Assume that ni = 1.5 x1010 cm3 and let Cjo = 0.5 pF.
Calculate the junction capacitance at VR = 1V and VR =
5V.

Solution 2.5

0.312 pF @ 1V
0.168 pF @ 5V

Seatwork #1 (15 minutes)

A silicon pn junction at T = 300K is doped at Na = 1017
cm3 and Nd = 1016 cm3. The junction capacitance is to
be Cj = 0.8 pF when a reverse-bias voltage of 5V is
applied. Find the zero-biased junction capacitance.

2
3 4

5 6

Times Up
9 10 11 12 13

14

Depletion Region Width

Forward-Biased pn Junction

Forward-Biased pn Junction

Depletion Region Width

Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship

The
theoretical relationship between the voltage and the current in the pn
junction is given by
IS is the reverse-bias saturation current (for silicon typical values are in the
range of 10-18 to 10-12). The actual value depends on the doping concentrations
and is also proportional to the cross-sectional area of the junction.
The parameter VT is the thermal voltage.
The parameter n is usually called the emission coefficient or ideality factor,
and its value is in the range 1 n 2. Unless otherwise stated, we will
assume the emission coefficient is n = 1.
This pn junction, with nonlinear rectifying current characteristics, is called a
pn junction diode.

Example 2.6
Consider a pn junction at T = 300K in which IS = 10-14
and n = 1. Find the diode current for vD = +0.7 V and
-0.7V.

Solution 2.6

For +.07 V iD = 4.93mA

-0.7 V iD = -9.99 fA

Example 2.8
A silicon pn junction at T = 300 K has a reversesaturation current of IS = 2 1014 A. Determine the
required forward-bias voltage to produce a current of (i)
ID = 50 A and (ii) ID = 1 mA.

Solution 2.8

ii)

pn Junction Diode

Temperature Effects
Since both IS and VT are
functions of temperature,
the diode characteristics
also vary with temperature.
For silicon diodes, the
change is approximately 2
mV/C.

Breakdown Voltage
The electric field may become
large enough that covalent
bonds are broken and electron
hole pairs are created. Electrons
are swept into then-region and
holes are swept into the pregion by the electric field,
generating a large reverse bias
current. This phenomenon is
called breakdown.
The most common breakdown
mechanism is called avalanche
breakdown

Breakdown Voltage

Breakdown Voltage
A second breakdown mechanism is called Zener
breakdown and is a result of tunneling of carriers
across the junction. This effect is prominent at very high
doping concentrations and results in breakdown
voltages less than 5 V.
A pn junction is usually rated in terms of its peak
inverse voltage or PIV.

Switching Transient

Switching Transient
the pn junction diode can be used as an electrical
Since

switch, an important parameter is its transient response,

that is, its speed and characteristics, as it is switched from
one state to the other. The forward-bias current iD is

As the forward-bias voltage is removed, relatively large

diffusion currents are created in the reverse-bias direction.
The large reverse-bias current is initially limited by resistor
RR to approximately

Switching Transient

Switching Transient
The junction capacitances do not allow the junction voltage to change
instantaneously.
The reverse current IR is approximately constant for 0+< t < ts , where ts is the
storage time, which is the length of time required for the minority carrier
concentrations at the space-charge region edges to reach the thermal
equilibrium values.
The fall time tf is typically defined as the time required for the current to fall to
10 percent of its initial value.
The total turn-off time is the sum of the storage time and the fall time.
In order to switch a diode quickly, the diode must have a small excess minority
carrier lifetime, and we must be able to produce a large reverse current pulse.
The transient turn-on time is the time required to establish the forward-bias
minority carrier distributions.
Although the turn-on time for the pn junction diode is not zero, it is usually
less than the transient turn-off time.

High-Frequency Model
Depletion Capacitance

Seatwork #2 (30 mins)

1. Recall that the forward-bias diode voltage decreases
approximately by 2 mV/C for silicon diodes with a
given current. If VD = 0.650 V at ID = 1mA for a
temperature of 25 C, determine the diode voltage at
ID = 1mA for T = 125 C.
2. Calculate the built-in potential and depletion-region
18
3
width
for
a
silicon
diode
if
Na
=
2
x
10
/cm
and Nd =
1
2
15
3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1020/cm3.
1

2
3 4

5 6

Times Up
9 10 11 12 13

14

Assignment #2
1. A diode is doped with NA = 1019/cm3 on the p-type
side and ND = 1018/cm3 on the n-type side. (a) What is
the depletion-layer width wdo? (b) What are the values
of xp and xn? (c) What is the value of the built-in
potential of the junction? (d) What is the value of EMAX?
2. A diode is operating with iD = 300 A and vD = 0.75 V.
(a) What is IS if n = 1? (b) What is the diode current for
vD = 3 V?

Reminder
Quiz # 1 on Tuesday September 6

Reference
Neamen , Donald., (2010). Microelectronics: Circuit
Analysis and Design, 4th edition, McGrawHill