Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Teaching Philosophy
What I hear I forget, What I see I remember,
What I do, I understand Confucius (~200 BC)
Lecturing is not teaching, & Listening is not learning You
learn by doing Educational psychologists
Examples: Riding bicycle, driving car, etc.
Our philosophy: teach, tell, show you what to do and make you do
it & test if you know how to do it.
Home works, tutorials, quizzes, tests, EXAMS
You cannot put the same shoe on every foot. We learn
differently: individualistic, group, etc. Work together but answer
individually.
Objectives
Reading Materials
C. J. Geankoplis Transport Processes
and Unit Operations, Prentice Hall,
1993
C. J. Separation Processes, McGraw
Hil,l 1980
G. F. Nalven ed. Distillation and other
Industrial Separations, AIChE, 1997.
R. E. Treybal, Mass transfer
Operations, McGraw Hill, 1980
Introduction: Separation
in process industry
removal of contaminants from feed, wastes,
and recycle streams
separation of valuable products from
wastes, impurities and by-products.
separation processes account for 50 to 90%
of the capital costs of most chemical plants
and about 70% of the ultimate product cost.
Separation processes also important in
biological organisms, ecosystems, and
environmental engineering.
Introduction: Separation
Process-1
a separation process, is any
mass transfer process used to convert a
mixture of substances into two or more
distinct product mixtures, at least one of
which is enriched in one or more of the
mixture's constituents.
done by contacting the mixture with
another phase.
Such two phases are generally only
partially miscible in one another.
The two phases in contact may be Gas-
Introduction: Separation
Process-2
Separation process
.
Feed/mixt
ure to be
separated
Contactin
g device
Another
product
phase poorer
in a solute
A product
phase
richer in a
solute
Another
phase brought
in to contact
feed
Introduction: Separation
Process-3
After the contacting, the two phases may
now be separated
The choice of phase and conditions will
ensure that one of the phases in contact
will be depleted or enriched in one or
more components of the original mixture.
Several separations may be required to
achieve the level of purification desiredmultiple separation stages
Phases in
contact
Direction of
transfer of
solute(e)
Gas to liquid
eg
Absorption
liquid and
gas
humidification
liquid and
gas
Liquid(water) to
gas(air)
dehumidification
liquid and
gas
Gas(air) to liquid
Drying of moist
air
Stripping or
desorption (reverse
absorption)
liquid and
gas
Liquid to gas
Steam to
remove volatile
components
from nonvolatile oils
SO2 in air to
water
NH3 in air to
water
Liquid-liquid
(solvent)extra
ction
vapour and
liquid that
vapourises
vapour;
vapour to
liquid
richer in ammonia
Liquidliquid
Liquidliquid
Solid-Liquid
extraction
Liquid- Solid
crystallization
Liquid- Solid
Other separation
processes
Adsorption, Crystallization,
cyclonic separation
Centrifugation , Chromatography,
Decantation, Demister (vapor), Drying,
Electrophoresis, Elutriation, Evaporation,
Flotation, Flocculation, Filtration,
Distillation processes:
most popular chemical separation
process,
capable of producing pure
substance from mixture
requires two phases: liquid and
vapor,
uses energy to accomplish
separation.
oil production,
air separation,
distillation of wine
to cognac and
spirits.
Absorption/stripping
processes
popular in environmental
applications
transfer gas component from gas
to liquid or vice versa
requires two phases: liquid and gas
uses the different affinity gas
component for gas and liquid.
scrubbing smokestacks
removal of ammonia from
refinery
remove CO2 from air.
liquid-liquid extraction:
used for processes that requires low
temperature operation
transfer soluble component from one
liquid to another
requires two phases: two immiscible
or partially miscibleliquids
uses the different affinity
components for separation.
food processing
pharmaceutical
separation,
oil purification.
solid-liquid extraction:
used liquid to extract component
from a solid matrix
transfer soluble component from
solid to liquid
requires two phases: solid and liquid,
uses the solubility of the component
for separation.
TYPICAL CASES
Gold from ore: mixture of solids
flotation, roasting (chemical
reaction) and electrolytic refining
Processing methods:
Several
Equilibrium between
phases1
Distillation
reliability, simplicity, and low-capital
cost
But energy consuming
Absorption
Stripping
Humidification
dehumidification
Applications of distillation
1. separate crude oil into fractions for specific uses
such as transport, power generation and heating.
2. Water is distilled to remove impurities-salt from
sea water.
3. Air is distilled to separate its components - notably
oxygen, nitrogen and argon- for industrial use.
4. Distillation of fermented solutions- used since
ancient times to produce distilled beverages with a
higher alcohol content-whiskey, gin etc
5. Small-scale Purification of liquid mixtures:
Equilibrium between
phases2
Volatility Of Components1;
Vapour pressure2
molecules hit the walls of the container-exert a
pressure.
This pressure is called the saturated vapour
pressure (also known as saturation vapour
pressure) of the liquid
saturated vapour pressure increases with
temperature
Increasing temperature, increases the average
energy of the molecules which hit walls with more
energy
-more of them are likely to have enough energy to
Vapour pressure3
The higher the vapour pressure, the higher the tendency
of the molecules to escape from the liquid and hence the
higher the volatility.
higher the vapour pressure >> Intermolecular forces
holding liquid molecules together are relatively weak.
>> Less supply of heat to break them completely and boil
the liquid.
volatility of components3
substance with the higher boiling point is
known as the less volatile component (LVC).
If we let A = MVC and B = LVC,
Composition of components in the phases are
expressed in terms of mole fractions:
yA = mole fraction of component-A in the
vapour phase
xA = mole fraction of component-A in the liquid
phase
At a different temperature and/or pressure, the
2 components will distribute differently
yB =1- yA
x =1- x
Distribution of components
At higher temperature T2 but at the same pressure P,
equilibrium is attained, with different phase
compositions than at temperature T1.
mole fractions of A in the vapour and liquid are yA2 and
xA2 respectively.
components A and B are distributed in vapour and
liquid phases at different temperatures. Such a
diagram is called the phase diagram.
Such data at different temperatures but constant
pressure will constitute the T-x-y diagram or
constant pressure phase diagram or Boiling
point-concentration diagram
Also called boiling point diagram-gives the boiling
point of liquids of different compositions
Changes in distribution of
components in the phases with
temperature1
saturated vapour
subcoole
d liquid
saturated liquid
Super heated
vapour
subcooled liquid
PHASE DIAGRAMs1:T-x-y
the distribution of components in the liquid and
vapour phases is a function of temperature
the bubble-point and the dew-point of a binary
mixture at constant pressure.
Liquids of different composition at the same
pressure will boil at different temperatures- bubblepoint curve
Vapours of different composition at the same
pressure will condense at different temperaturesdew-point curve
boiling of a liquid mixture takes place over a range
of boiling points.
Condensation of a vapour mixture takes place over
a range of condensation points
P=101.3k
P=344.7
P=344.7
Pa
T [K]
T [K]
T [K]
x1
y1
x1
y1
x1
y1
[mol/mo [mol/mo
[mol/mo [mol/mo
[mol/mo [mol/mo
l]
l]
l]
l]
l]
l]
368.25
0.008
0.138
395.65
0.017
0.349
423.85
0.014
0.249
363.25
0.016
0.277
393.15
0.024
0.398
415.45
0.036
0.395
355.25
0.033
0.479
385.15
0.055
0.518
409.55
0.078
0.507
349.35
0.052
0.604
379.15
0.107
0.608
404.25
0.144
0.582
345.35
0.072
0.675
375.95
0.194
0.67
402.75
0.229
0.618
342.65
0.094
0.719
374.45
0.273
0.695
402.15
0.341
0.65
340.75
0.117
0.738
373.05
0.388
0.718
401.45
0.444
0.665
338.15
0.171
0.776
372.15
0.545
0.747
399.75
0.559
0.7
336.45
0.237
0.8
371.95
0.633
0.768
398.85
0.754
0.781
PHASE DIAGRAM2
PHASE DIAGRAM3
Constant
(Isothermal)/PConstantTemperature
Temperature (Isothermal)
Phase
Diagram
x-y
Phase
Diagram
Constant Temperature
(Isothermal) Phase Diagram:P-x-y
Diagram
At Higher Pressures
(MVC)
toABvolatility
of B (LVC):
Volatility of B
PB / x B
Since xB = 1 xA
AB
PA = y A P T ; P B = ( 1 - y A ) P T
PA / x A
PA (1 x A )
PB /(1 x A ) PB x A
AB
y A (1 x A )
x A (1 y A )
y (1 x )
x (1 y )
With the understanding that concentrations are in terms of the MVC and
simplifying,
1
At y=x (straight line through the origin)
A and B have the same volatility and will vapourise together
when heated
Vapour and liquid will have the same composition.
No separation is possible
The larger the value of above 1.0, the easier the
separation.
Ease of separation
1 ( 1) x
x
1 ( 1) x
1. Less variation in
relative volatilities
with composition
1. More variation in
relative volatilities
with composition
2. Lower levels of
2. Higher levels of
deviation from actual
deviation from actual
VLE data
VLE data
3. Cannot be used to
predict VLE
3. Can be used to
accurately
predict VLE
accurately
xA=1-xB
Since:
Temperat
ure,
T
T1
T2
T3
PA0
PB0
xA
yA
Pi0 in kPa, T in K )
from
P = P P / [P - y (P P )]
T
0
A
0
B
Ideal
behavio
ur
PA= PA0 xA A
PB=PB= PB0 xB B
where
A is the (liquid-phase) activity coefficient of
component, A
A is the (liquid-phase) activity coefficient of
component, B
Activity coefficient=f(T & composition)
1. determined experimentally
2. predicted using various equations
Minimum-boiling azeotrope
Mixtures less composition than azeotropes
produce vapour richer than liquid.
Remaining liquid becomes poorer in mvc and moves
away from L
Types of distillation
methods
1. Distillation without reflux1. boiling of liquid mixture to be separated
and separating the vapour generated
without allowing any liquid to return to
the still
Distillation without
reflux
Two types :
a. Simple (differential )distillation:
vapour generated by boiling of liquid
mixture to be separated is condensed
without allowing any liquid to return to
the still
b. Flash or equilibrium distillation:
vapourizing a fraction of the liquid in
such a way that the vapour produced is
in equilibrium with the residual liquid and
then separating the two phases
DISTILLATION:
binary mixture of A (MVC) and
The system consists
of a batch of liquid
B (LVC)
(fixed quantity) inside a kettle (or still)
fitted with heating element or steam jacket
a condenser to condense the vapour
produced.
The condensed vapour is known as the
distillate. The distillate is collected in a
condensate receiver.
The liquid remaining in the still is known
as the residual.
SIMPLE DISTILLATION:
Condensate Composition vs. time
Rayleigh Equation:
concentration vs. quantity in
simple
distillation
After time (t + dt) , vapour dL is produced,
Simplifying
dLA / dL dLA
dLB / dL dLB
LA / L
AB
LB / L
LA
LB
ln
AB ln
LA0
LB 0
LB
LA
LA 0
LB 0
AB
EXAMPLE
A batch of crude pentane contains 15 mole
percent n-butane and 85 percent n-pentane. If a
simple batch distillation at atmospheric
pressure is used to remove 90 percent of
butane, how much pentane will be removed?
What will be the composition of the remaining
liquid?
average value of 3.5
yA
Separat
or
heater
xA
F V L
Separator
FxF V y A Lx A
Component A balance:
yA
heater
where
F, V and L are flow rate of feed, vapor and liquid phases.
xF, yA and xA are mole fraction of component A in feed,
vapor and liquid.
xA
Where
( f 1)
xF
yA
xA
f
f
114
Homework
1. 100 kg mols of a mixture which contains 60 mol% n-pentane (A)
and 40 mol% n-heptane (B) is vaporized at 101.32 kPa pressure
under differential conditions until 40 kg mol are distilled. What is
the average composition of the vapour formed and of liquid
remaining in the still.
2. If 100 kg mols of the same mixture is flash distilled such that 40
kg mol are vapourised, what are the compositions of the vapor
and liquid left?
3.
100 kg mols of a binary mixture (n-pentane and n-heptane ) is
distilled until the % composition of n-heptane in the still increases from
40% to 70% at 101.32 kPa pressure and under differential conditions . What
is the average composition of the vapour formed and of liquid remaining in
the still. How much liquid remains in in the still
Homework No.7
1. A mixture containing 50 g mol of benzene and 50 g
mol of chlorobenzene is distilled by simple distillation
without reflux until 40 percent of the initial charge is
taken off as overhead. The system benzenechlorobenzene may be considered ideal, with an
averge relative volatility of 5.3
(a) What are the compositions of overhead and residue
after distillation is complete?
(b) The overhead from the first distillation is subjected to
a second simple distillation. Again 40 percent of the
charge is taken overhead. What is the composition of
the second over head product? What is its mass in
grams? How many grams of chlorine does it contain?
Pwater
(mm Hg)
Pbenzene
(mm Hg)
308.5
35.3
43
150
325.9
52.7
106
300
345.8
72.6
261
600
353.3
80.1
356
760
0 (no vapourization) to
1 (total vapourization).
f yD = xF - (1 - f) xB
Re-arrange to yield:
fraction f depends on the enthalpy of the liquid
feed, the enthalpies of the vapour and liquid
leaving the separator
for a given value of f, we will obtain certain
values for yD and xB.
CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION
Distillation process, in its simplest form,
can be represented in a block diagram as
Distillate:D:
shown
Feed:F
Bottoms:B
Separation by distillation
A:column
This is the main equipment where the separation
process described above is carried out.
In general, column has 3 sections:
1. rectifying (or enriching) section: the more
volatile component is removed through
contacting the rising vapour with the downflowing liquid. located above feed entry;
2. stripping section: the down-flowing liquid is
stripped of the more volatile component by the
rising vapour. located below feed entry.
3. feed (or flashing) section.
. column may be equipped with trays or packings
or both.
Overhead condenser
a heat exchange equipment for condensing the hot
vapour leaving the top of the distillation column.
Either cooling water (e.g. using shell-and-tube heat
exchanger) or air (using fin-fan condensers) can be
used as the cooling medium.
In either case, partial or total condensation may be
achieved.
In the case of total condensation (as in the analysis
above), all the vapour is converted into liquid.
For partial condensation, there remain in the
vapour state the most volatile components.
The condensed liquid is partially returned to the
distillation column as reflux and partially withdrawn
as distillate product.
Accumulator/ Pump
Overhead accumulator
This is a horizontal (usually) pressure
vessel whereby the condensed vapour is
collected.
Pumps :
for returning the reflux liquid back to
the distillation column,
for pumping out the bottoms product for
storage,
for pumping the feed into the
distillation column.
Reboiler
Reboiler :
to produce the vapour stream in the distillation
column, called the reboiled vapour or the boil-up
vapour.
Reboilers can be both external or internal (stab-in).
Steam reboilers or fired reboilers can be used. Fired
reboilers typically uses fuel gas or fuel oil or
combination of both
Feed/Bottom Exchanger
used for heat conservation: the hot bottoms
stream is used to heat up the feed stream before
it enters the distillation column.
As a result the bottoms product is cooled and
then rundown to storage.
For better temperature control of the feed stream,
a separate preheater or charge heater (both not
shown in the above diagram) may be used.
This is usually located downstream of the
feed/bottom exchanger for final temperature
adjustment.
Steam may be used for the preheater, and fuel
gas-fuel oil is used for the charge heater.
Tray/plate columns
Distillate D
with mole fraction xD
Bottoms B
with mole fraction xB
Tray/plate columns
The feed usually enters somewhere near
the middle of the column.
Distillate D is richer in the more volatile
component
Bottoms B is richer in the less volatile
component,
want the distillate to be as pure in MVC
as possible (maximum xD = 1.00), and
the bottoms to be as pure in LVC as
possible (minimum xB = 0.00).
Tray/plate columns:
types
3 major types:
1. sieve Trays
2. valve Trays
3. bubble cap Trays
(a)
(b) valve cap(c) bubble cap
perforation
MATERIALS
METAL
CERAMIC
PLASTIC
http://www.koch-glitsch.com/koch/products/plastic_random_packing.asp
Packing Materails
(b)
(a) Structured
Random Packing
Packing
Materials
Expensive
Far less pressure drop
Higher efficiency and capacity
STRUCTURED PACKING
PACKING IS MADE IN SECTIONS
AND FILLS ENTIRE COLUMN
DIAMETER
http://www.sulzerchemtech.com/DesktopDefault.aspx/tabid-232/
The McCabe-Thiele
Method
uses the equilibrium curve diagram to
determine the number of theoretical
stages (trays) required to achieve a
desired degree of separation.
It is a simplified method of analysis making
use of several assumptions,
very useful tool for the understanding of
distillation operation.
The VLE data must be available at the
operating pressure of the column.
Information required :
feed condition (temperature, composition)
distillate compositions
bottom compositions
the reflux ratio - the ratio of reflux liquid over the
distillate product.
to determine number of theoretical stages required
for a given separation
Main assumption
1) Equimolar overflow through the tower between the
feed inlet and the top tray and the feed inlet and bottom
tray.
2) Liquid and vapor streams enter a tray, are
equilibrated, and leave.
McCabe-Thiele Method:
assumptions of the method
a. Constant Molal Overflow. The molar flow rates of
the vapor and liquid are nearly constant in each
section of the column. This also ensures the operating
lines are straight lines.
b. Heat Effects are negligible. For example, heat
losses to and from the column are small and neglected
.
c. For every mole of vapor condensed, another mole of
liquid is vaporized.
d. The liquid and vapor leaving the tray is in
equilibrium with the vapor and liquid entering the tray.
number of theoretical
stages
number of theoretical
stages
Reflux Ratio R = L /
D
ROL Characteristics:
i. Straight Line Equation
ii. Slope= R/(R+1),
Intercept =(xD /R+1),
iii. In addition, if xn = xD, then yn+1 = xD .
iv. Thus, the operating line passes through the
point (xD , xD) on the 45o diagonal line.
1>q>0
q=0
0>q
3 different SOL that correspond to 3 different qlines, for a given ROL (i.e. fixed R and x D)is shown
.
Thus, the operating line passes through the
point (xB , xB) on the 45o diagonal line.
Vm 1 Lm B
Vm1 ym 1 Lm xm Bx B
167
Lm
Bx B
ym 1
xm
Vm 1
Vm 1
= constant and
Lm Vm 1
= constant,
slope of Lm/Vm+1
It intersects the y = x line at x = xB.
y Bx B / Vm 1
168
SOL: equation
Substituting, and re-arrange
If the change to SOL is made too soon, at tray 4. Again the result is less than opt
Steps/Procedure:
1. Draw VLE curve.
2. Draw 45" line.
3. Locate xB, xD, and ZF on y=x line.
4. Calculate slope of q line [ -q/( 1 - q)]
and draw q line from (zF, zF)
5. Calculate B and D from overall balances
6. Calculate liquid and vapour flow rates in
rectifying and stripping sections.
Slope = R/(R+1)
Slope = q/(1-q)
Slope = L/ V
Homework No.8
1. A saturated liquid feed of 200 mol/h at the boiling
point containing 42mol% heptane and 58% ethyl
benzene is to be fractionated at 101.32 kPa abs to give
a distillate containing 97 mol% heptane and a bottoms
containing 1.1 mol% heptane. The reflux ratio used is
2.5:1. Calculate the molar flow rate of the distillate and
the bottoms, theoretical number of trays required to
achieve the separation, and the optimum feed tray
location. Equilibrium data are given below at 101.32
kPa abs pressure for the mole fraction n-heptane x H
Temperature
Temperature
and yH.
K
xH
yH
xH
yH
409.3
136.1
383.8
110.6
0.485
0.730
402.6
129.4
0.08
0.23
376.0
102.8
0.790
0.904
392.6
119.4
0.25
0.514
371.5
98.3
1.000
1.000
Tempe
rature
Tempe
rature
Slope=Rm/(Rm+1)
XD/(Rm+1)
Minimum
Steps/Procedure:
1. If the external reflux, Lo, is at its bubble point:
2. LR = Lo = (R) D
3. VR = LR + D
4. vs = VR - (1 - q ) F
5. Ls = LR + qF
. 7. Calculate slope of rectifying operating line:=[ R/(R+1)
. 8. Draw rectifying operating line from (xD , xD ) with slope= =[ R/(R+1) . 9. Draw stripping operating line from (xB , xB ) to the intersection
. of the q line with the rectifying operating line.
. 10. Check your calculations by seeing whether the slope of stripping operating
. line is Ls/Vs.
. 11. Start from the xB point on the 45 line and step up from the stripping operating line to
the VLE curve.
. The first step corresponds to the partial reboiler. The next step is tray above, the next is tray 2,
and so on.
. 12. When this stepping procedure crosses the intersection of operating lines, this is the
optimum feed tray (i.e.? any other feed tray would require a greater total number of
trays). Thus the feed tray NF has been determined.
. 13. Switch to the rectifying operating line and continue stepping.
. 14. When the xD point is crossed, this is the total number of trays NT.
Steps/Procedure:
13. Switch to the rectifying operating line and continue stepping.
14. When the xD point is crossed, this is the total number of trays
NT.
This last step may not go through the xD point exactly, implying a
noninteger
number of trays.
Dont let this worry you. In this procedure we have assumed perfect or
theoretical or 100 percent efficient trays;
that is, trays on which the vapour and liquid streams leaving the trays
are in perfect phase equilibrium.
Actual industrial columns seldom achieve this ideal situation, so an
efficiency factor must be used to determine the number of actual trays
installed in the column
this must be an integer number in an actual column.
Typical efficiencies run from 40 to 90percent, depending on the
system.