Parts of speech

Learning about the parts of speech is the

first step in grammar study just as learning
the letters of Alphabets is the first step to
being able to read and write English.

 To understand what a parts of speech is , you

must understand the idea of putting similar
things together into groups or in categories
according to their use.
Color

Fruit

Liquids

places
Languages

blue

Banana

Milk

Batgram
Spanish

Red

Apple

Yellow

Orange

Green

Grape

Water
coffer
Tea

Arabic
Urdu
English

Karachi
Islamabad
Jhelum

 Parts of speech are the categories used to

organize or classify words according to how
they are used.
We use parts of speech as a way to make it
easier to talk about language.
The philosophers Aristotle and later
scientists studied animals and classified
them according to what they have in
common.

 For example
Eagle , sparrow and Robins are kinds of Birds.
Shark, salmon and tuna are kind of fish.
Dogs, horses and elephants are kind of
mammals.

 Aristotle and others also studied language

and classified words according to their use
and what they have in common.
Usually there are 8 categories or parts of
speech to classify words we use in English.
This classification is not perfect , sometime
it is hard to tell which category a word
belong to.

 Look at the sentence

The man surreptitiously entered the room.
You probably do not know the meaning of
word surreptitiously , but if you know about
the categories of language , parts of speech ,
you will recognize that it is and adverb that
tells something how the man did particular
action.

Parts of speech
Parts of
speech

Semantic words
(Carry Meanings)
1-Noun
2-Adjectives
3-verbs
4-adverbs

Functional words
(perform useful job
to complete
meaning)
5-Determiners
including articles
6-Pronoun
7-Conjunctions
8-Preposition

1-Noun
Any naming words , identity words.
This part of a speech refers to words that are used to name
persons, things, animals, places, ideas, or events.
Sarah is very versatile.
The italicized noun refers to a name of a person.
Cats can be extremely cute.
In this example, the italicized word is considered a noun because it
names an animal.

It is my birthday.
The word birthday is a noun which refers to an event.
silence is the best answer.
Silence is an idea.

 Proper Noun proper nouns always start with a capital

letter and refers to specific names of persons, places, or
things.
Examples: Prophet (PBUH), Tahzeebs Pizza, The walking
Dead, Mini Cooper.
Common Noun Common nouns are the opposite of
proper nouns. These are just generic names of persons,
things, or places.
Examples: Heroes, pizza parlor, TV series, cars.
Concrete Noun this kind refers to nouns which you
can perceive through your five senses or one of the five senses
Examples:folder, sand, board.
Abstract Noun - unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns
are those which you cant perceive through your five senses.
Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery

 Count Noun it refers to anything that is countable, and

has a singular and plural form.
Examples: kitten, video, ball
Mass Noun this is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns
are also called non-countable nouns, and they need to have
counters to quantify them.
Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter
Collective Noun a group of persons, animals, or things.
Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students),
Compound Noun- noun made up of two or more words.
Most compound nouns are formed by nouns modified by
other nouns or adjectives.
Example: The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their
own right, but if you join them together they form a new word
toothpaste. Goodnight

2-Pronoun
A pronoun is a part of a speech which
functions as a replacement for a noun. Some
examples of pronouns are: I, it, he, she,
mine, his, hers, we, they, theirs, and ours.
Sample Sentence
Sarah is a very stubborn child. She just
stared at me when I told her to stop.

Types of pronoun
1. Personal Pronoun
2. Possessive Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Relative Pronoun
5. Demonstrative Pronoun
6. Interrogative pronoun
7. Reciprocal pronoun
8. Indefinite pronoun

Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns represent specific people or
things. We use personal pronouns in place of the
person or people that we are talking about. We use
them depending on:
Number: singular (e.g. I) or plural (e.g. we)
Person: 1st person (e.g. I), 2nd person (e.g. you) or
3rd person (e.g. he)
Gender: male (e.g.: he), female (e.g.: she) or neuter
(e.g.: it)
Case: subject (e.g.: we) or object (e.g.: us)

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Pronoun indicates close

possession or ownership or relationship of a
thing/person to another thing/person.
e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, hers,
Example.
This book is mine.

Demonstrative Pronouns
"Demonstrative" means "showing, making something clear."
Demonstrative pronouns point to things. The demonstrative pronouns are:
this, that, these, those.
Use "this" and "these" to talk about things that are near in space or in time.
Use "that" and "those" to talk about things that are farther away in space
or time.
Example:
This cannot go on.
That was beautiful!
He wanted those, but decided to compromise on these.

Reflexive Pronouns
"Reflexive" means "going back to itself."
Reflexive pronouns show that the action affects the person
who performs the action.
Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves"
(plural).
The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself,
herself, itself, ourselves, themselves.

Example sentences:
He cuthimselfwhile shaving.
I sentmyselfto bed.
He could hurthimself!
We must helpourselves.
She trustsherself.

Relative Pronouns
"Relative" means "connected with something."
Relative pronouns are pronouns that link different parts of a sentence.
The relative pronouns are: who, whom, which, that, whoever, etc.
Examples sentences:
The girl who called yesterday came to see you.
The teacher whom you wrote has answered your questions.
She lives in Kiev, which is the capital city of Ukraine.
I really liked the book that you gave me.

Interrogative Pronouns
"Interrogative" means "used in questions."
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. The interrogative
pronouns are
who, whom, which, what, whoever, whatever, etc.
Use "who" and "whom" to talk about people.
Use "which" and "what" to talk about animals, places and things.
Example sentences:
Who is your father?
Whom did you speak to?
Which bag did you buy?
What are my choices?

Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal means that two people or groups do the same thing to each other.
They treat each other in the same way.
For example, Joe loves Kate, and Kate loves Joe. So we can say, "Kate and Joe
love each other."
Another example: Mike helps Lucy, and Lucy helps Mike. So we can say, "Mike
and Lucy help each other."
There are two reciprocal pronouns in English:
Each other and one another.
The cat and the dog like each other.
The two politicians hate each other.
We must stop fighting one another.
They can't hear one another.

Indefinite Pronouns
"Indefinite" means "not exact, not limited."
Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to any specific
person or thing.
Examples:
Anything, everybody, another, each, few, many, none, some.
Example sentences:
Many have died during the war.
Can anyone call her?
Everybody wants to see you.
Something can be done to help.

Adjective
This part of a speech is used to describe a noun or a
pronoun.
Examples:
Big, pretty, expensive, green, round, French, loud, quick, fat.
Example sentences:
He has big blue eyes.
The new car broke down.
The old lady was talking in a quiet voice.

 Adjectives gives information about

OpinionNice, pretty, stupid, original, expensive, etc.
Size
Big, small, large, tiny, enormous, little, etc.
Age
Young, old, new, ancient, antique, etc.
Shape
Round, square, flat, straight, etc.
Color
Blue, red, white, black, dark, bright, yellowish, etc.
Origin
Italian, British, Mexican, western, southern, etc.
Material
Metal, wooden, plastic, golden, etc.

Descriptive Adjective
or
Adjective of Quality
Descriptive adjectives are the most numerous of the different types of
adjectives. These adjectives describe nouns that refer to action
State
quality (careless, dangerous, excited, sad, black, white, big, small, long,
fat, English, Mediterranean, three-cornered).
dangerous chemicals
green vegetables
a square box
a big house
a tall tree
a cold morning
a true story
English language

 Adjectives of Number

or
Adjectives of Quantity

An adjective of quantity tells us

the number (how many) or amount (how
much) of a noun.
He has eaten three apples.
I dont have much money.
There is so much wine for the guests.
This long, thin centipede has many legs.

Demonstrative Adjective
A demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, those) shows
the noun it modifies is singular or plural and whether the
position of the noun is near or far from the person who is
speaking or writing.
A demonstrative adjective also points out a fact about the
noun.
This red balloon is mine and those three yellow ones are
yours.
This cute baby is his brother. That cute baby is his sister.
These two fat cats have tails, but that thin cat doesnt have
a tail.

Possessive adjective
A possessive adjective expresses possession
of a noun by someone or something.
Possessive adjectives are the same as
possessive pronouns

Degrees of Adjectives and

their use.
There are three degrees of adjectives.
1. Positive Adjective
2. Comparative Adjective
3. Superlative Adjective
Positive
Big

Comparative
bigger

Superlative
big
Biggest

Heavy

Heavier

Heaviest

Many

More

Most

Use of comparative adjective.

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one
thing in comparison to another thing (one thing). It makes
comparison between two things (only two things not more than two).
Word than is mostly used after comparative adjective but
sometimes other words to may be used after
comparative adjective. See the following examples.
Examples.
She is taller than Mary.
A cup is smaller than a glass.
He is junior to me.

Superlative Adjectives
Superlative is the highest degree of a thing in
comparison to other things. A superlative
adjective means that a object is surpassing all others
(things in comparison) in quality or characteristic.
For example
John Bills Gate is the richest person in world.
Brunel is the most beautiful hotel in England.
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in world.
Hannan is the most intelligent student in his class.

Interjection
An interjection is a short sound, word or phrase used
to express the speaker's emotion.
Examples:
Oh! Look out! Ow! Hey! Wow! Ah! Um...
Example sentences:
Wow, that's amazing!
Ah, that was a good meal.
Um... I'm not sure what to say.
Oh dear! What happened?
Hello! How are you doing?
Well, that's an option to

Interjection for Greeting

This type of interjection is used in the
sentence to indicate the emotion of warmth
to the person meeting with such as hey,
hello, hi, etc.
For example:
Hey! Nice to see you here in the party.
Hello! I am Pooja.

Interjection for Joy

This type of interjection is used in the
sentence to indicate immediate joy and
happiness on any happy occasion occurred
such as hurrah, wow, hurray, etc.
For example:
Wow! You are looking gorgeous.
Hurray! We successfully won this football
match.

Interjection for Approval

This type of interjection is used in the
sentence to express the strong sense of
approval or agreement for something that
has happened such as well done, bravo,
brilliant, etc.
For example:
Well done! You win the race.
Bravo! The first rank is yours this year.

Interjection for Attention

This type of interjection is used in the

sentence to draw attention of
someone such as look, behold, listen,
hush, etc.
For example:
Look! You so arrogant.
Listen! I have never copied you.
Behold! Someone strange is there.

Interjection for Surprise

This type of interjection is used in the sentence
to express the strong sense of surprise about
something that has happened such as ha, what,
hey, ah, oh, eh, etc.
For example:
What! You failed.
Oh! Really you completed the task, I can't
believe.
Ah! I got new job.

Interjection for Sorrow

This type of interjection is used in the
sentence to express the emotion of sadness
about something unfortunate has happened
such as alas, ouch, ah, oh, etc.
For example:
Alas! He is no more.
Ouch! It's very paining.

Conjunction
Conjunction is the word that joins (conjoin) words,
group of words, different part of sentences and
clauses.
It works like a glue, it helps words to stick together.
And
Either/or
Neither/nor
But
Or

 It joins two or more words

- I went to the store to buy eggs, milk, and
bread.
- I played cards for a while, but then I
played chess.

Types of conjunctions
There are basically two types of conjunctions
-Coordinating conjunctions
-Subordinating conjunctions
-Conjunctions sometime work in pair and are
called correlative conjunctions.
- Conjunction adverbs are also frequently used
to provide logical connection in sentences.

Coordinating conjunctions
Connect words, phrases and independent clauses.
They are seven in numbers used as FANBOYS.
When to use coordinating conjunctions
---To communicate addition- and
I like popcorn and pizza.
---to communicate contrast- but, yet
I want popcorn but not pizza.
It was not costume party, yet many came dressed as
literally villains. (yet joins two indp clauses)

----To communicate result/effect- so

I want popcorn so I left pizza.
-----To communicate reason/cause- for
I left pizza for popcorn.
------To communicate a choice or
Do I want popcorn or pizza?
------To communicate a negative choice- nor
I do not want pizza nor popcorn.

More
Consequently
He only wears brown shoe; consequently he does not use
white socks.
(Two independent clauses)
However
The shoes were not good; however, they were leather.
Indeed
Moreover
Nevertheless
Then
Therefore

Subordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to express a relation
between dependent and an independent clause.
Dep clause . Indp clause
--Regarding time (after, before, since, once and
until, when , whenever, while )
--to communicate reason/cause (as, because, since)
--to communicate condition (if, even if, unless)
--to communicate contrast (although, even thought)
--Regarding location (where , wherever)
--Regarding a choice (Than, Whether)

 Subordinating conjunctions often begin a

dependent clause. If clause has started with
conjunction or interrupts the sentence, then it is
separated from the independent clause by a
comma.
Once she found the perfect broach, she bought
three outfit to match it.
Once demonstrate a time context, a comma is
used because conjunction begins the sentence.
He wore the top hat wherever he went.
Wherever demonstrate a location context. Thought
wherever begins the dependent clause , no
comma is used because it does not begin the
sentence or interrupt the sentence.

Correlative
conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are two separate conjunctions that are often in

sentences together. They work in pairs. Correlative conjunctions connect

things of same value it means we will connect a verb with verb and a sentence
wit sentence.
Both and
Both maroon and black are mine.
Either- or
I like to wear either pants or capris
Neither- nor
Neither the jacket nor the shirt look good.
Whether or
I do not know whether to play baseball or to play basketball this year.
not only- but also
Not only few button fell off but all of them
Not- so much as
It was not that his clothes were colorful so much as they were fancy.

Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs provide connections and
transition that clarify or limit the meaning of
words.
They can appear anywhere in sentence. They
should be followed by a comma and, when in the
middle of a sentence , preceded by a semi colon.
I was tired; consequently, I went to bed.
Therefore communicates a result and is preceded by
a semicolon because it is in the middle of sentence.

Verb
Every sentence has two parts
Subject
Predicate
The key word in predicate is verb, the verb tells
what subject of sentence is, has or feels.
Verb tells about
Action (kill, go , send)
State (is , am, are)
Occurrence ( happened)

Action verbs
Action verbs are words that express action
or (give , take , go) or possession (has, have,
own).
It can be physical or mental.
Action verb can be
Transitive
Intransitive

 Transitive verbs
A transitive verb always has a noun that
receives the action of the verb, known as
direct object.
Sarah raises her hand.
The verb raises, her hand is the object
receiving that action. Therefore , raises is a
transitive verb.

 Transitive verbs
Sometime verbs have indirect object, which
name the object to whom or for whom the
action was done.
Sarah gave jack the pencil.
The verb is gave, direct object is pencil
(what did he give ? Pencil)
The indirect object is jack,
(to whom did he give?jack)

 Intransitive verb
An intransitive verb never has a direct or
indirect object. Although an intransitive
verb may be followed by an adverb or
adverbial phrase , there is no action to
receive its action.
Sarah raises slowly from a chair.
Verb raises
Slowly modifies the verb, but no object
receives an action.

 Dustin will lay down his books.

His book will lie all day.

Linking verbs
Linking verbs connects the subject of a sentence to a
noun or adjectives that renames or describes the
subject. The noun or adjective is called subject
compliment.
Jack became a business manager.
Became is verb that links the subject with its
compliment.
Am
be
is
seem
was
Being
were
Are
Become

Helping verb
Helping verbs are used before action or linking verbs
to convey additional information regarding aspects
of possibility (can, could, etc.) or time (was, did, has,
etc.). The main verb with its accompanying helping
verb is called a verb phrase.
Tajo is (helping verb) going (main verb) to Quetta .
The trip might (helping verb) be (main verb)
dangerous.
Auxiliary verb

Adverb
Adverbs describe verbs and modify adjectives
and other adverbs.
Adverbs, unlike adjectives, do not modify
nouns.
Adverbs can also modify phrases, clauses, and
sentences.
Adverbs answer one of the following questions:
When? Where? Why? How? Under what
conditions? and To what extent?

Examples
The teacher had to speak loudly to be heard
over the children. (Loudly modifies the verb
speak.)
The children were really bad during the movie.
(Really modifies the adjective bad.)
John approached the wounded dog very slowly.
(Very modifies the adverb slowly.)
Clearly, Sarah did not understand the
directions. (Clearly modifies the sentence.)
The box is still below the stairs. (Still modifies
the phrase below the stairs.)

Types of Adverbs
Adverbs of Time
An adverb of time answers the question When?
Adverbs of time include: after, always, before,
during, early, later, never, now, often, rarely,
recently, sometimes, soon, then, today, tomorrow,
usually, yesterday, etc.
Example:
John will attend the football match after he finishes
his homework.
(After answers the question: When will John attend
the soccer game?)

 An Adverb of Manner
Answers the question How? Adverbs of
manner include: badly, beautifully, better,
bravely, cheerfully, fast, hard, quickly,
slowly, inadequately, healthy, well, etc.
Example: Sarah slowly walked over the
rocky beach. (Slowly answers the question:
How did Sarah walk?)

 Adverbs of Place

An adverb of place answers the question

Where? Adverbs of place include: above, away,
below, down, here, inside, near, outside, there,
up, etc.
Example:
Susan placed the boxes above the file cabinet.
(Above answers the question: Where did Susan
place the boxes?)

 Adverbs of Degree
An adverb of degree answers the question How much?
It describes the strength and intensity at which
something happens.
Adverbs of degree include: almost, completely,
enough, entirely, extremely, hardly, just, little, much,
nearly, quite, rather, very, too, etc.
Example:
John worked very hard to complete his part of the
project. (Very answers the question: How hard did
John work?)

 Adverbs of Frequency
An adverb of frequency answers the question
How often?
Adverbs of frequency include: always, never,
usually, frequently, occasionally, rarely, seldom,
sometimes, etc.
Example: Bob always forgets to check his email
before class begins. (Before answers the question:
How often does Bob forget to check his email?)

Preposition
A preposition is a word (often a short word) that
expresses the relationship between two other
nearby words. In the examples, preposition shows
us the relationship between the wordbookand the
word author.
The bookaboutthe author.
The bookbythe author.
Role
A preposition precedes anoun(or apronoun) to
show the noun's (or the pronoun's) relationship to
another word in the sentence. In the examples
above, the preposition preceded the nounauthor to
show that noun's relationship with the nounbook.

 Although prepositions are hard to generalize with separate

rules, there is one simple rule about them. And, unlike most
rules, this rule has no exceptions.
Rule:
They are always followed by a "noun", never followed by a
verb.
By "noun" we include:
Noun (dog, money, love)
Proper Noun (name) (London, Mary)
Pronoun (you, him, us)
Noun Group (my first car)
Gerund (swimming)

 Thetypesofprepositionare
asfollows:
1.Prepositionfor
2.Prepositionfor
3.Prepositionfor
4.Prepositionfor

Time
Place
Direction
Agent

Prepositio Time Nature

In
1. Month or Year.
e.g. in January, in 1985
2. Particular time of day or month or year
e.g. in morning, in evening, in first week of January, in
summer, in winter
3. Century or specific time in past etc
e.g. in 21st century, in stone age, in past, in future, in
present
On
1. Day
e.g. on Monday
2. Date
e.g. on 5th of March, March 5
3. Particular day
e.g. on Independence Day, on my birthday,
At

1. Time of clock
e.g. at 5 Oclock, at 7:30 PM
2. Short and precise time
e.g. at noon, at sunset, at lunch time, at bed time, at the
moment, at the same time

 Examples.
He was bornin1945.
She will go to New Yorkon25th of
March.
The concert will beginat7 Oclock.
He gets upearlyinthe morning.
We enjoyed a lotinthe summer.
The president will deliver speech to
publiconIndependence Day.
She received a lot giftsonher
birthday.
Where were youatthe lunchtime?
I will call youat12 A.M

Preposition for Place.

(in, on, at)
Prepositions in, on or at are usually
used for different places.
In is usually used for place which
have some boundary (boundary may
physical or virtual).
On is used for surface
At is used for specific place.

Preposition

Place Nature

In

Place having some

boundary (physical or
virtual boundary)
Examples.
In hall
In school
In a building
In a box
In a car
In library
In garden
In America
In room
In cupboard

On

Surface of something.
Examples.
On a table
On blackboard
On a page
On the wall
On the roof
On a map

 Examples
Shelivesin New York.
Students studyinlibrary.
The wedding ceremony will be
heldinthe hall.
There are some booksonthe table.
The teacher wrote a
sentenceonblackboard.
He was flying kiteonthe roof.
Her parents were waiting for heratthe
entrance of school
There was a huge gatheringatbus
stop.
His house isatthe end of street.

 Preposition for Direction.

(to, toward, through, into)
Prepositions like to, towards, through,
into are used todescribethe
direction. Following exampleswill
help in better understanding.
Examples.
She wenttothe library.
He jumpedintothe river.
He ran away when he felt that
someone was comingtowardhim.

 Preposition for Agent.

Prepositionfor agent is used for a thing
which is cause of another thing in the
sentence. Such prepositions areby,
withetc.Followingexampleswill help in
better understanding.
Examples.
This book is writtenbyShakespeare.
The work was completedbyhim.
The room wasdecoratedbyher.
The tub is filledwithwater.