Magnetic

Properties

Rianne Alipio
Juvy Joyce Gonzales
Trina Loria

Magnetism

The phenomenon by which materials

assert an attractive or repulsive force or
influence on other materials
Magnetic forces are generated by moving
electrically charged particles
Within a magnetic field, the force of the
field itself exerts a torque that tends to
orient the magnetic dipoles with the
field

Magnetic Dipoles

can be viewed as small bar

composed of north and south poles
Exist in magnetic materials
Magnetic dipole moments are
represented by arrow
Influenced by magnetic fields

Magnetic Field
Vectors

Magnetic Field Strength

(H)
Externally applied magnetic field
For solenoid (cylindrical coil):

where H= magnetic field strength

(A/m)
N=no. of turns
I = magnitude of the current (A)
= coil length

Magnetic Induction/Magnetic
Flux Density (B)

Represents the magnitude field of the

internal field strength within a
substance that is subjected to an H
field.
Units: teslas or webers/sq. meter
(Wb/m^2)

Relationship of
H and B

Where
=
permeability
=units: Wb/Am
or H/m

Permeability a property of the

specific medium thing which the H
field passes and in which B is
measured
In a vacuum,
where
vacuum

= permeability of a
= 4 x 10^-7 (1.257 x 10^-

6) H/m

Relative Permeability (

Ratio of the permeability in a material to

the permeabiltiy in a vacuum

Measure of degree to which the material

can be magnetized or the ease with
which a B field can be induced in the
presence of an external H field

Magnetization (M)
Magnetic Susceptibility (

Magnetic Units

Origins of Magnetic
Moments

Macroscopic magnetic properties of

material are a consequence of
magnetic moments associated with
individual electrons
Each electron in an atom has
magnetic moments that originate
from 2 sources:
1. its orbital motion around the
nucleus
2. its spinning motion around its

Spin
magnetic
moments
may be only
in an up
direction or
in an
antiparallel
down
direction

Bohr Magneton (

Most fundamental magnetic moment

Has a value of 9.27 x 10^-24 A-m^2
For each electron in an atom, spin
magnetic moment is +
(+ for spin
up, - for spin down)
Orbital magnetic moment
contribution =
where
is the magnetic
quantum number of the electron

Materials composed of atoms having

completely filled electron shells are
not capable of being permanently
magnetized.
Ex. Inert gases (He, Ne, Ar, etc.)
some ionic materials

Problem 1
A coil wire 0.25 m long and having
400 turns carries a current of 15 A.
Calculate the following:
a) magnetic field strength, H
b) flux density B if the coil is in a
vacuum
c) flux density B inside the bar of
chromium within the coil
d) magnitude of magnetization M

TYPES OF MAGNETISM

Diamagnetism

Paramagnetism

Ferrromagnetism
Antiferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetism

DIAMAGNETISM

very weak form of magnetism that is

nonpermanent and persists ONLY while
an EXTERNAL FIELD is being applied
Induced by a change in orbital motion
of electrons due to an applied magnetic
field
When placed between poles of strong
electromagnet, diamagnetic materials
are attracted toward REGIONS WHERE
THE FIELD IS WEAK

DIAMAGNETISM
THE MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED MAGNETIC MOMENTS
IS EXTREMELY SMALL, AND IN A DIRECTION
OPPOSITE TO THAT OF THE APPLIED FIELD

(1) diamagnetic

none

opposing

(2) paramagnetic

dom

ned

No Applied
Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

DIAMAGNETISM

Volume susceptibility Xm for solid

materials is on the order of -10^-5
Xm is negative

r < 1 (slightly)
B < BO

Diamagnetism is found in all

materials, but because it is so weak,
can be observed only when other
types of magnetism are totally
absent

DIAMAGNETISM

Note that when the field is zero the

magnetization is zero. The other
characteristic behavior of diamagnetic
materials is that the susceptibility is
temperature independent. Some well
known diamagnetic substances, in units
of 10-8m3/kg, include:
quartz (SiO2)-0.62
Calcite (CaCO3)-0.48
water-0.90

PARAMAGNETISM

atomic dipoles are free to rotate

resulted when they preferentially
align, by rotation, with an external
field
These magnetic dipoles are acted on
individually with no mutual
interaction between adjacent dipoles

PARAMAGNETISM

some of the atoms or ions in the

material have a net magnetic
moment due to unpaired electrons in
partially filled orbital
the individual magnetic moments do
not interact magnetically, the
magnetization is zero when the field
is removed

PARAMAGNETISM

Inasmuch as the dipoles align with

the external field, they enhance it,
giving rise to:
r > 1

Xm is positive even though relatively

small
Susceptibility range: 10^-5 to 10^-2

No Applied
Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)
none

(1) diamagnetic

opposing

PARAMAGNETISM

(3) ferromagnetic

aligned
igned

(2) paramagnetic

opposing

(2) paramagnetic

aligned

(1) diamagnetic

igned
random random
none

No Applied
Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

PARAMAGNETISM

Many iron bearing minerals are

paramagnetic at room temperature.
Some examples, in units of 108
m3/kg, include:
Montmorillonite (clay)13
Nontronite (Fe-rich clay)65
Biotite (silicate)79
Siderite(carbonate)100
Pyrite (sulfide)30

Both diamagnetic and

paramagnetic materials are
considered to be nonmagnetic
because they exhibit magnetization
only when in the presence of an
external field
Also, for both, the flux density B
within them is almost the same as it
would be in a vacuum.

FERROMAGNETISM

the atomic moments in these materials

exhibit very strong interactions which are
produced by electronic exchange forces
and result in a parallel or antiparallel
alignment of atomic moments.
Characterized by certain metallic
materials possess a permanent magnetic
moment in the absence of an external field
manifest very large and permanent
magnetizations

FERROMAGNETISM

they are displayed by the transition

metals iron (as BCC ferrite), cobalt,
nickel, and some of the rare earth
metals such as gadolinium (Gd)
Magnetic susceptibilities as high as
10^6 are possible for ferromagnetic
materials

FERROMAGNETISM

in a ferromagnetic material, coupling

interactions cause net spin magnetic
moments of adjacent atoms to align
with one another, even in the
absence of an external field

FERROMAGNETISM

is a form of magnetic ordering in

which the intrinsic magnetic dipole
moment, or spin, of electrons on each
crystal-lattice site all align in the
same direction
is the phenomenon that gives
materials such as iron, cobalt and
nickel their magnetic properties

FERROMAGNETISM
Generally, there are two distinct
characteristics of ferromagnetic
materials:
(1) spontaneous magnetization
(2) the existence of magnetic ordering

temperature

(1)The spontaneous
magnetization is the
net magnetization
that exists inside a
uniformly magnetized
microscopic volume in
the absence of a field.
The magnitude of this
magnetization, at 0 K,
is dependent on the
spin magnetic
moments of electrons.

(2)Even though electronic

exchange forces in
ferromagnets are very
large, thermal energy
eventually overcomes the
exchange and produces a
randomizing effect. This
occurs at a particular
temperature called the
Curie temperature (TC).
Below the Curie
temperature, the
ferromagnet is ordered
and above it, disordered

opp
aligned

(2) paramagnetic

random

FERROMAGNETISM

aligned

opposing
aligned

(3) ferromagnetic

ned

(2) paramagnetic

aligned

ferrimagnetic

random

(3) ferromagnetic

ned

(1) diamagnetic

none

No Applied
Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

source
of ferrimagnetism
for cubic ferrites.

FERRIMAGNETISM

In ionic compounds, such as oxides, more

complex forms of magnetic ordering can
occur as a result of the crystal structure.
One type of magnetic ordering is called
ferrimagnetisms.
it is similar to ferromagnetism; it exhibits all
the hallmarks of ferromagnetic behaviorspontaneous magnetization, Curie
temperatures, hysteresis, and remanence.
However, ferro- and ferrimagnets have very
different magnetic ordering.

FERRIMAGNETISM

Magnetite is a well known

ferrimagnetic material. Indeed,
magnetite was considered a
ferromagnet until Nel in the 1940's,
provided the theoretical framework
for understanding ferrimagnetism

Crystal Structure of Magnetite

In ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments of the A and B
sub lattices are not equal and result in a net magnetic
moment.

Magnetite, Fe3O4 crystallizes with

the spinel structure. The large
oxygen ions are close packed in a
cubic arrangement and half the
trivalent (Fe3+) ions are situated in
octahedral positions, the other half,
in tetrahedral positions. The divalent
Fe2+ ions are all located in
octahedral positions

The tetrahedral and octahedral sites

form the two magnetic sublattices, A
and B respectively. The spins on the A
sublattice are antiparallel to those on
the B sublattice. The two crystal sites
are very different and result in
complex forms of exchange
interactions of the iron ions between
and within the two types of sites

The structural formula for magnetite is

[Fe3+]A [Fe3+,Fe2+]B O4

This particular arrangement of cations

on the A and B sublattice is called an
inverse spinel structure. With negative
AB exchange interactions, the net
magnetic moment of magnetite is due
to the B-site Fe2+.

Magnetic Domains

Themicroscopic orderingof electron

spins characteristic offerromagnetic
materials leads to the formation of
regions of magnetic alignment called
domains.

Source:
http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/imgsol/domain.gif

Click icon to add picture

Magnetic Domains
The sketches above are after Young and are adapted from magnified
images of domain boundaries in single crystals of nickel. They suggest
that the effect of external magnetic fields is to cause the domain
boundaries to shift in favor of those domains which are parallel to the
applied field.

MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS

is an important phenomenon and

refers to the irreversibility of the
magnetization and demagnetization
process
when a material shows a degree of
irreversibility it is known ashysteretic

At zero H field,
there exists a
residual B
field that is
called the
remanence,
or remanent
flux density,
the material
remains
magnetized in
the absence
of an external
H field

To reduce
the B field
within the
specimen to
zero(point
C), an H
field of
magnitude
must be
applied in a
direction
opposite to
that of the
original field

MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS

the resistance to movement of

domain walls that occurs in response
to the increase of the magnetic field
in the opposite direction accounts for
the B field lag behind the applied H
field or decreases at a lower rate
(hysteresis effect )

Why do ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic

materials experience magnetic hysteresis?

And why these materials may become permanent

magnets?

When aferromagneticmaterial is
magnetized in one direction, it will
not relax back to zero magnetization
when the imposed magnetizing field
is removed. It must be driven back to
zero by a field in the opposite
direction.
Once the magnetic domains are
reoriented, it takes some energy to
turn them back again.

This property(hysteresis) of
ferrromagnetic materials is useful as
a magnetic "memory
Some compositions of ferromagnetic
materials will retain an imposed
magnetization indefinitely and are
useful as "permanent magnets"

Permanent magnetic moments in

ferromagnetic materials result from
atomic magnetic moments due to
electron spin

A good permanent magnet should

produce a high magnetic field with a
low mass, and should be stable
against the influences which would
demagnetize it. The desirable
properties of such magnets are
typically stated in terms of the
remanence and coercivity of the
magnet materials.

Ferrimagnetic materials also exhibit

hysteresis character. They have
residual magnetization, are
characterized by a coersive force and
so on.

SOFT AND HARD

MAGNETIC MATERIALS

USES OF SOFT MAGNETIC

MATERIALS

Generators
motors
dynamos
Switching circuits

USES OF hard MAGNETIC

MATERIALS

motors
loudspeakers
holding devices

Common soft magnetic

materials:
iron
iron-silicon alloys
nickel-iron alloys.

Common hard magnetic

materials:
SamariumCobalt Magnets
NeodymiumIronBoron Magnets

TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF

HARD MAGNETIC
MATERIALS

Conventional Hard Magnetic

Materials

Have (BH)max values that range between

about 2 and 80 kJ/m3 (0.25 and 10 MGOe).
include ferromagnetic materialsmagnet
steels, cunife (CuNiFe) alloys, alnico (Al
NiCo) alloysas well as the hexagonal
ferrites (BaO6Fe2O3).
High-Energy Hard Magnetic Materials
Permanent magnetic materials having
energy products in excess of about 80
kJ/m3 (10 MGOe)

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Superconductivity is the ability of certain

materials to conduct electriccurrentwith
practically zeroresistance. This produces
interesting and potentially useful effects.
For a material to behave as a
superconductor, low temperatures are
required.
superconducting materials are used
primarily in magnets capable of generating
high fields.

Superconductivity was first observed in 1911 by

H. K. Onnes, a Dutch physicist. His experiment
was conducted with elemental mercury at 4
degrees kelvin (approximately -452 degrees
Fahrenheit), the temperature of liquid helium.
Since then, some substances have been made to
act as superconductors at higher temperatures,
although the ideal -- a material that can
superconduct at room temperature -- remains
elusive.
Another important property of superconductors
was discovered in 1933 by Meissner & Ochsenfeld.
One would expect, due to the perfect conductivity,
that magnetic flux should be excluded from
entering a superconductor, but also it was found
that flux was expelled from the material as it was
cooled through its transition temperature. This
phenomenon is termed the Meissner effect.

There are a few materials, however,

for which the resistivity, at a very low
temperature, abruptly plunges from a
finite value to one that is virtually
zero and remains there upon further
cooling. Materials that display this
latter behavior are called
superconductors, and the
temperature at which they attain
superconductivity is called the
critical temperature

At temperatures below Tc the

superconducting state will cease upon
application of a sufficiently large magnetic
field, termed the critical field Hc which
depends on temperature and decreases
with increasing temperature.
critical applied current density JC exists
below which a material is superconductive.
the superconductive state results from
attractive interactions between pairs of
conducting electrons

2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
SUPER CONDUCTING
MATERIALS

Type I materials while in the

superconducting state, are completely
diamagnetic; that is, all of an applied
magnetic field will be excluded from the body
of material, a phenomenon known as the
Meissner effect. Several metallic elements
including aluminum, lead, tin, and mercury
belong to the type I group.
Type II superconductors are completely
diamagnetic at low applied fields, and field
exclusion is total.

USES

Superconducting magnets capable of

generating high fields with low power
consumption are currently being employed
in scientific test and research equipment
also used for magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) in the medical field as a diagnostic
tool.
Abnormalities in body tissues and organs
can be detected on the basis of the
production of cross-sectional images.
Chemical analysis of body tissues is also
possible using magnetic resonance