Geotechnical Engineering B

No 5
Immediate Settlement
and
Consolidation Settlement

Contents:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Compression of Soils
Immediate Settlement
Consolidation Settlement
One Dimensional Consolidation Test

5.

General
Application of Load
Recording the Settlement

Interpretation of Results

Magnitude of Settlement
Rate of Settlement
Interpretation of Test Results
Design Calculation Example 3

1. Compression of Soil
Elastic deformation or immediate settlement
occurs immediately & is recoverable
only a small amount of settlement
assessed by Youngs modulus of soil
Consolidation or primary settlement
decrease in volume of voids
only recoverable to an extent - reduction in overburden pressure
for foundation design
Plastic deformation or secondary consolidation
lateral flow of soil particles
not recoverable
difficult to determine
Creep
collapse of fibrous matter
organic soils e.g. peat
difficult to determine

 Of these four types of compression, the greatest

contribution to the settlement of a foundation is
generally consolidation or primary settlement.
Immediate settlement is generally comparatively
small and can usually be assessed using Youngs
modulus of compressibility for the soil, values of
which are published.
Secondary consolidation and creep are difficult to
evaluate and are not considered during this course.

2. Immediate Settlement
Find values of I and Eu
To find I use influence charts (Janbu,
Bejerrum & Kjaernsli: 1956) I=

Eu difficult to determine in laboratory

tests derived from Poisson's ratio
together with the results of consolidation
testing, typical values are:

Example 1 Calculate the immediate settlement beneath the centre of the 2m

pBI
square spread foundation

P=125kN/m2
L

1m

B
Very loose H1
E =10MN/m
to loose
SAND
u

2.5m

3m

Eu=70MN/m

0.85

Dense
SAND

}
}

1/2 = 0.5
D/B = 2/2 = 1
L/B = 2.5/2 = 1.25
H1/B =
D/B =
L/B =
H2/B =

H2

ROCK H3=H2-H1(dense sand)

0.5

= 0.85
= 0.5

Eu

125 2 0.85 0.5

10

=10.6mm

P=125kN/m2
1m

Very loose H1
E =10MN/m
to loose
SAND
u

2.5m

3m

Eu=70MN/m

Dense
SAND

Eu = 10
MN/m2

Eu = 70
MN/m2

H2

ROCK H3=H2-H1(dense sand)

Eu= 70
MN/m2

Eu = 70
MN/m2

Example 1 - Calculate the immediate settlement beneath the centre of

pBI
the 2m square spread foundation

P=125kN/m2
L

1m

B
Very loose H1
E =10MN/m
to loose
SAND
u

2.5m

3m

Eu=70MN/m

Dense
SAND

}
}
D/B = 1/2 = 0.5
2/2 = 1 }
L/B =
5.5/2 = 2.75 }
H /B =
1/2 = 0.5
D/B = 2/2 = 1
L/B = 2.5/2 = 1.25
H1/B =

= 0.85
= 0.5

Eu

125 2 0.85 0.5

10

=10.6mm

= 0.85

H2

= 0.6

125 2 0.85 0.6 125 2 0.85 0.5 = 0.3mm

70 H
70 H1(dense sand)
2

Total immediate settlement = 10.6 + 0.3 = 10.9mm

0.85

ROCK H3=H2-H1(dense sand)

0.5

3. Consolidation Settlement
Consolidation in a fully saturated soil
apply a load
increase in PWP
pressure increase is gradually taken by the soil
particles
Sand - very
quick - can only
be tested in situ
e.g. SPT

Clay & silt very slowly permeability is

low - cohesive
nature of soil
allows sample
preparation

Rate of load transfer of load from water to soil depends on permeability of soil

Consolidation in partially saturated soils will be almost immediate, as it is air that is

being expelled. However, when an increase in load is applied to a fully saturated
soil the resulting increase in pressure is first taken by the pore water and is then
gradually transferred to the soil particles over a period of time. As has been
discussed previously, the rate at which this transfer of load occurs will depend upon
the permeability of the soil being consolidated.
In high permeability soils, such as sand and gravel, the transfer of pressure from the
pore water to the soil skeleton will occur very quickly, thus consolidation will be
rapid. Unfortunately, it is not possible to measure such movements in the laboratory
as it is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain an undisturbed sample of sand or gravel.
Moreover, the speed at which the pore water pressures dissipate would not permit
valid measurements to be taken. Consequently, settlement of granular soil is
generally evaluated using the results of insitu tests which are undertaken during the
site investigation.
In clay and silt the transfer of pressure from the pore water to the soil skeleton will
be slow as the permeability of these soils is low. Moreover, the cohesive nature of
the soil would allow specimens to be prepared for laboratory testing. Consequently,
it is the consolidation testing of cohesive soils which will form the subject of the
work which follows

4. One Dimensional Consolidation Test

The Oedometer Test (BS 1377: Part 5:1990), assesses the two
important features related to consolidation:
1. The magnitude of consolidation settlement
2. The rate at which this settlement takes place

75mm dia. 19 to 20mm thick

cored from a lager sample using a
cutting ring - undisturbed & 1-D
thickness compressed
X-area is unaltered
top & bottom of sample capped
with porous plates
immersed in a water bath (fully
saturated)
loaded vertically
vertical settlement recorded

Application of load

Load sample at 5 increments

each increment maintained until
sample is fully saturated (24hrs)
each load is double the pervious one
initial pressure = effective
overburden pressure
load applied via lever arm 10:1 or
11:1 ratio
after finial increment of load & 24
hrs consolidation all the loads are
removed
sample swells for 24 hrs

moisture content taken

Example 3: A consolidation test has been undertaken on a specimen of brown slightly

sandy CLAY and the following data was obtained:
Initial dry density of specimen 1.60 Mg/m3
Particle density 2.65 Mg/m3
Calculate the voids ratio after each loading cycle, determine the coefficient of
compressibility mv, plot the e - log and determine the consolidation settlement sc
Increment
No

Pressure
(kN/m2)

Sample Thickness
(mm)

0
1
2

0
75
150

19.1

3
4

300
600

dH (1 e)
de
H
The initial void ratio, at
the start, of the test may
be estimated from the
following:

18.711
18.495
18.206
17.823

de

Void ratio after

each loading (dH)
0
0.389
0.605
0.894
1.277

dH (1 0.656)
19.1

change in void ratio

(de) = dH x 0.0867
0.000
0.034
0.052
0.078
0.111

new void ratio

(e) = 0.656-de
0.656
0.622
0.604
0.578
0.545

= dH x 0.0867

s
2.65Mg / m3
eo
1 eo
1
3
1.60 Mg / m
d

= 0.656

Coefficient of compressibility mv
mv

1 H
.
H

or

1
(0.656 0.545)
mv
.
1 0.656
(600 0)

mv

1 e
.
1 e P

= 1.1x10-4 m2/kN

= 1.1x10-4 m2/kN x 1000 = 0.11 m2/MN

mv = volume change per increase in effective stress
(m2/MN) inverse of pressure

Void Ratio vs Pressure (e vs ')

e
e e1

log ' log '1

'

0.700
0.650

Cc

0.625 0.520 =0.105

Cc
log 1000
100

0.600
0.550

0.500
0

200

400

600

800

consolidation settlement:

Void Ratio vs log Pressure (e vs log P)

C
'
sc c log 1 H
'
1 e

0.105
log 1000
19.1
100
1 0.656

=1.21mm

1.27mm

NB actual stress range and

thickness of clay layer can be
used to determine consolidation
settlement of insitu soil

portion of the e vs log plot

0.650

0.625
e

sc

Compression index
Cc - slope of the linear

0.700

0.600
0.550

0.520

0.500
1

10

log '

100

1000

Preconsolidation Pressure
A normally-consolidated clay has not been subject to a stress higher than its present-day
overburden stress, whereas an over-consolidated clay has (in the past) been subject to greater
stress.1
Maximum effective stress acted on the
soil in the past - melting of ice sheets,
erosion of overburden pressure or rise
in the water table
A
D
1) Produce back the straight
line part (BC) of the curve.

2) Determine the point (D)

of maximum curvature on
the recompression part (AB)
of the curve.

Log

3) Draw the tangent to the

curve at D and bisect the
angle between the tangent and
the horizontal through D.
4) The vertical through the
point of intersection of the
bisector and CB produced
gives the approximate value of
the preconsolidation pressure.

Rate of Settlement

Coefficient of consolidation cv is used to estimate the rate at which

settlement takes place, two methods of obtaining c v
square root time

log time

0.848d 2
cv
t90
0.196d 2
cv
t50

where:
U = degree of consolidation 90% or 50%(m2/yr)
t90 = time at 90% consolidation (mins)
t50 = time at 90% consolidation (mins)
d = average thickness of specimen (mm)

Typical Values of Coefficient of Consolidation, cv

Cv
Rate of
Description
m2/yr Settlement
<0.5
slow
Caly - about 20 yrs for 90% consolidation
0.5-2.0 moderate Csandy clays
2.0-5.0
fast
Clayey sands and clayey gravels
5.0<
rapid
Consolidation complete during construction

NB only use one set of values from a particular stress range (i.e. 200kN/m2
a loading increment stage appreciate to the stress range required)

Root time method

normally used to determine state at U=90%
(U=degree of consolidation)
Draw a line down from the liner portion of the graph
Construct horizontal line AC such that ratio AC :
AB is 1.15 : 1

Settlement
or void ratio
or dial
gauge

e.g. AB = 8.62
AC = 8.62 x 1.15 = 9.91

0.848d 2
cv
t90

U=90%

A
A
See worked example

t90
C

time

k
cv
mv w

Log time method

U=0%
dH
dH

A
B

1
4

normally used to determine state at U=50%

(U=degree of consolidation)

A
B

0.196d 2
cv
t50

U=50%
Dial gauge

Primary
consolidation

where d = half the thickness

of the specimen

Secondary
consolidation

U=100%

t50

Log time

Pick any two points A and B on the

parabolic portion of experimental
curve so that B-B : A-A is 4:1 (NB
time values not log time values) plot
dH above A-A U=0%
See worked example

Initial compression
(parabolic curve)

Intersection of 2 linear
portions is U = 100%
Midway point U=50%

k
cv
mv w

Interpretation of Test Results

Coefficient of compressibility mv
P

P+dP
dH

soil

mv = 1 . dH
H dP

soil

or

dH mv .dP.H

dH mv . v .H
mv = volume change per increase in effective stress
(m2/MN) inverse of pressure

Applied load (p)

Amount of
Consolidation Settlement

Sand

dH mv . v .H
where:

mv

Compressible layer (e.g. clay)

Sand

dH = consolidation settlement (mm)

H = thickness of layer (m)
mv = coefficient of compressibility (m2/MN)

v = vertical stress at depth z (kN/m2)

Total settlement = average settlement calculate for each layer

Applied load (p)

dH mv1. v1.H1 mv 2 . v 2 .H 2 .....

mv1

v1

H1

mv2

v2

H2

mv3

v3

H3

Clay

Use thinner
layers because
the stress will
change
significantly
over a thick
layer

Example 2: Estimate the consolidation settlement of the layer of soft

silty CLAY beneath the 2m square foundation shown below
P=150kN/m2 = net foundation pressure
1m

=55.8kN/m2

1.5m
0.75m

=H

1m

1.875

dH mv . v .H

soft CLAY mv=0.8m2/MN

1m m L 1 0.53
z 1.875
B
1
n
0.53
z 1.875

I = 0.093

I z P 4 0.093 150kN / m 2 =55.8kN/m2

dH mv .dP.H
dH 0.8 103 55.8 0.75 = 0.03348m => 33.48mm
m m 2 / kN kN / m 2 m

Tolerable Differential Settlement

Structural safety
Appearance of the
building
Limitations imposed by
special equipment

Settlement:
Q6.
(a) A flexible foundation 3 m x 1 m is to be at a depth of 1 m in a clay. The foundation transmits a uniform net
stress of 125 kN/m2 to the soil. The clay is 3 m thick, has undrained modulus (E u) of 46 MN/m2 and is underlain
by sandstone. Determine the average immediate settlement the clay will undergo.
(b) A layer of clay 5 m thick with a bulk unit weight () of 20 kN/m3 overlies a sand. The clay is in turn overlain
by a 3 m thick layer of sand ( = 18.3 kN/m3). Consolidation tests reveal the clay to have a coefficient of volume
change (mv) of 4 x l0-4m2/kN and a coefficient of consolidation (cv) of 5x10-8 m2/s. A structure is to be erected
quickly, ultimately imposing a uniform stress of 150 kN/m2 on a raft foundation 8 m square, the base of which is
located 2 m below the surface of the upper sand. Stress changes at the mid-height of the clay may be regarded
as being representative of the whole layer. Construct a time settlement curve for the foundation due to the
consolidation of the clay for a period of 3 years.
Charts of Janbu coefficients, Fadums Influence factors, and degree of consolidation versus time factor are
shown in the attached Figs. Q6(a), Q6(b) and Q6(c) respectively.

(a) A flexible foundation 3 m x 1 m is to be at a depth of 1 m in a clay. The foundation transmits a uniform net
stress of 125 kN/m2 to the soil. The clay is 3 m thick, has undrained modulus (E u) of 46 MN/m2 and is underlain by
sandstone. Determine the average immediate settlement the clay will undergo.
3m

1m

1m

125kN/m2

PBI

Eu

CLAY
3m

Eu = 46MN/m2

kN
m2
m 1000 mm
2
m
MN 1000 kN

SANDSTONE

1/1 = 1
D/B = 3/1 = 3
L/B = 3/1 = 3
H1/B =

}
}

= 0.82

= 0.70

125 1 0.82 0.71

46

0.82

0.71

=1.6mm

(b) A layer of clay 5 m thick with a bulk unit weight () of 20 kN/m3 overlies a sand. The clay is in turn overlain
by a 3 m thick layer of sand ( = 18.3 kN/m3). Consolidation tests reveal the clay to have a coefficient of volume
change (mv) of 4 x l0-4m2/kN and a coefficient of consolidation (cv) of 5x10-8 m2/s. A structure is to be erected
quickly, ultimately imposing a uniform stress of 150 kN/m2 on a raft foundation 8 m square, the base of which is
located 2 m below the surface of the upper sand. Stress changes at the mid-height of the clay may be regarded as
being representative of the whole layer. Construct a time settlement curve for the foundation due to the
consolidation of the clay for a period of 3 years. [13]
8m

2m

150kN/m2

8m
SAND
= 18.3kN/m2
CLAY

= 20kN/m2
mv =4x10-4m2/kN
cv = 5x10-8m2/s

Construct a time settlement curve from the

foundation due to consolidation of the clay
for a period of 3 years.

8m

2m

150kN/m2

Foundation stress causing settlement:

SAND
= 18.3kN/m3

1m
2.5m

8m

P 150

kN
kN

2
m

18.3

m2
m3 2

P 113.4kN / m 2

5m

Consolidation of clay layer:

i) Vertical stress at centre of layer
4m
4m

v 4( I z P)

where I z m n L

3.5

1.14

1.14
0.185

v 4( I z P)

4 0.185 113.4
83.92kN / m 2

1.14

ii) Consolidation of clay layer

v mv H

dH mv .dP.H

2
kN
m
83.92 2 4 104
5m
m
kN

= 0.1678m x1000 = 167.8mm = 170mm

ii) Time settlement curve

cv t
Tv 2
d

where:

Sand

cv = 5x10-8m2/s
t = time in days = variable

d = H/2 =2.5

Clay

H=5m

Sand

Tv

5 108 m 2 / s t days
2.52 m 2

8 109 t days
Tv
60 60 24
s
seconds to days

Tv 6.912 104 t days

Tabulate
Years
Days (t)
Tv
U from graph
x u

1/4

1/2

3/4

91.25
0.06

182.5
0.13

273.75
0.19

365
0.25

0.11
19

0.25
42

0.35
60

0.46
78

Tv 6.912 104 t days

0.11

1 1/2

2 1/2

3 1/2

547.5
0.38

730
0.50

912.5
0.63

1095
0.76

1277.5
0.88

0.59
100

0.70
119

0.79
134

0.84
143

0.88
150

Case 1 = wide or extensive

applied pressure compared to
thickness of the soil layer, e.g. an
embankment and lowering the of
the water table.
Case 2 = applied pressure over a
small area such as a foundation.
Case 3 = self-weight of soil
forming an embankment

0.06

Strip or spread loads take case 2

From part ii) above consolidation
settlement = 170mm
x U = 170 x 0.11 = 19

Years
Years
0.00
0.00
0
0
20
20
Settlement
Settlement

40
40
60
60
80
100
120
140
160

0.50
0.50

1.00
1.00

1.50
1.50

2.00
2.00

2.50
2.50

3.00
3.00

3.50
3.50

4.00
4.00