Appendix 1

PRINCIPLES OF
COOKING

Principles of Cooking
Cooking can be defined as the
transfer of energy from a heat source
to a food
Energy alters the foods molecular
structure, changes its texture, flavor,
aroma, and appearance
When food is cooked, the process
destroys microorganisms and makes
food easier to ingest and digest

Cooking Methods

Broiling
Poaching
Grilling
Simmering
Roasting
Boiling
Baking

Steaming
Sauting
Braising
Pan-frying
Stewing
Deep-frying

Heat Transfer
Conduction
Convection
Natural
Mechanical

Radiation
Infrared cooking
Microwave cooking

Heat Patterns

Effects of Heat

Proteins coagulate
Starches gelatinize
Sugars caramelize
Water evaporates
Fats melt

Cooking Methods
Dry-heat
Moist-heat
Combination

Dry-Heat Cooking Methods

Broiling
Grilling
Roasting
Baking

Sauting
Stir-frying
Pan-frying
Deep-frying

Dry Heat Cooking Methods

DefinitionAny cooking method that
does not use moisture as a cooking
medium
Methods:
Roasting
Sauteing
Grilling
Deep-frying

Deep Frying
Oils for
Oils for
In the past, chefs used rendered beef
suet for deep fat frying. Today,
commercially manufactured
shortenings specifically for deepfrying are recommended.
Most of these shortenings are
vegetable based , the most popular
types are made from soy bean oil
and canola oil.

Smoke point
Smoke Point - the temperature at which
an oil or fat visibly begins to smoke and
chemically begins to break down
Canola Oil - smoke point - 218 C
Many commercial fryer shortenings are
fully or partially hydrogenated.
Hydrogenation is the process of adding
hydrogen to oil, which makes it solid (fully
hydrogenated) or creamy (partially
hydrogenated) and resistant to oxidation
and chemical breakdown.

Enemies of Fat
Fat can be damaged by:
Salt (oxidation)
Corrosive metals (oxidation)
Water (hydrolysis)
Heat (polymerization)
Burnt Food Particles

Maintaining Fat
1. Store in tightly sealed containers away
from light. Cover fryer when not in use.
2. Skim food particles during frying.
3. Dont salt food over the fryer.
4. Food to be fried should be free of excess
moisture.
5. Dont pre-heat fryer too soon before frying.
Turn off when done frying. The longer fat
is exposed to heat the shorter its life.
6. Dont mix fats, saturated fats break down
more quickly.
( dont fry bacon in the deep fryer)

Deep fryers
Fuel can be gas or electric
Fryers are classified by the amount of shortening
they can hold.
Capacities range between 15 - 82 #

Temperature Range : 200 - 400 F

Most deep- frying is done between 325 and 375F

Most fryers are designed to maintain a ratio of 8#

fat to 1# food product being fried.This ratio is key to
a quick recovery time
Recovery time is the length of time it takes for fat to return
to desired cooking temperature after food is submerged in
it.

Coating Methods

la Francaise - dredged in flour

lAnglaise Standard Breading
Procedure:
Flour Egg Wash
Bread Crumbs
lOrly - battered (beer batter, tempura,
egg batter)
The purpose of coating or breading food to
be deep fried is twofold:
1. To keep the moisture in the product.
2. To keep the fat out of the product.

Frying Methods
1. Basket method - Product is placed in
the basket and lowered into the fat in the
basket.
2. Double basket method- Same as 1.,
but a second basket is placed over the
the product to keep it from floating.
3. Swimming method- product is dropped
directly into the fat and allowed to float
freely; usually done with with battered
foods that might stick to the basket

Grilling and Broiling

Grill - to cook with heat from below
Broil - to cook with heat from above
Both utilize very hot - radiant heat,
therefore only tender cuts should be
used.

Grilling and Broiling

Fuels used:
Broilers and Salamanders - Gas and
Electric
Grills - Electric (closed)
- Gas with metal; heat deflectors
- Gas with lava rock
- Charcoal-compressed and natural
- Wood-hard woods

Grilling Procedures
1. Preheat the grill.
2. Clean the grill with a wire brush.
3. Brush item to be grilled with oil or clarified
butter. Season product.
4. Place the item on a hot area of the grill.
Allow grill marks to form.
5. Turn the product 90 and allow cross marks
to form.

Grilling Procedures
6. Flip the product* and finish cooking over
moderate heat. After searing the second
side larger or pieces to be more well done
may be finished in the oven.

* Some fish and other delicate products may

be seared on only one side and then
finished in the oven.

Roasting
- Dry heat method of cooking use tender cuts
- Method of heat transfer convection

Roasting
Two Methods:
A. Searing method - Red meats are seared first to
seal in the juices and give color by means of:
1. Browning in a small amount of fat on top of the
stove
2. Starting the roast at a high temp. (450-500) in
the oven then finished at lower temperature.

Advantage - meat is well caramelized - good

appearance
Disadvantage - higher shrinkage - less yield

Roasting
B. Low temperature or constant heat method
- Meat is cooked at a moderate temperature
throughout
Advantage - Better yield - less shrinkage
Disadvantage - Longer cooking time;
caramelization may not be as pronounced

Roasting

Determining Doneness:

A. Touch - experience needed

B. Time / Weight / Temperature
C. Insert a metal skewer
1. Temperature of skewer (vs. body
temperature)
2. Observing the color of juice that flows
out
D. Thermometer

Roasting
Carry-over Cooking - the cooking that
occurs after a food has been removed
from the heat source. It is accomplished
by the residual heat remaining in the food.

In roasting, the larger the piece of meat, the

more heat energy it holds. Therefore the
larger the piece of meat the more carryover cooking will take place. Carry-over
cooking can account for as much as 20F.

Roasting
Resting - after removing them from the oven,

roasted meats should be allowed to rest 20

min. before carving to:
1. Finish carry-over cooking
2. Allow meat fibers to relax. Juice will flow
back to outer tissue from the center of the
roast.
Meat carved too soon will lose its color,
moisture and flavor; and will appear to be
overcooked.

Roasting
Pan Gravies
Principle - to dissolve drippings left in roasting pan (fond)
to make a sauce
A. Apply low heat to roasting pan to clarify fat. Meat
drippings that are suspended in the fat will cling to the
bottom of the pan.
B. Fat is removed from the pan or degreased
C. Deglaze roasting pan with stock to prepare:
1. Jus clair (natural juice, au jus)
2. Jus li - jus clair thickened with cornstarch or arrow
root
3. Gravy - jus clair thickened with roux (degreased fat
from the roast is sometimes used to make the roux)

Sauting
Saut (Fr. ) - to jump

Sauting Proteins
The key to sauting proteins is to sear the
meat to create color and preserve moisture.
Procedure:

Hot pan, small amount of fat (just enough to coat

the bottom of the pan.
White meats are dredged in flour, dark meats are
not.
Only use tender cuts of meat
Cooked to order, not held

Sauting Proteins
Deglazing

Excess fat is removed from the pan

Liquid is added to the pan
The liquid washes the deglazed
drippings (fonds) which are then used to
make a sauce.

The #1 problem in sauting is moisture.

If moisture is allowed to accumulate,
meat will boil and toughen.
Remedies to avoid excess moisture:
Heat pan and fat before adding meat.
Make sure meat is dry.
Dont overload the pan.
Once meat is added to a hot pan, do not stir or shake until heat
is recovered.
If sauce is made from the deglazing, the meat may be added
back to the pan to mix it, but do not return it to a boil or the meat
will toughen and lose moisture.

Stir-frying
Always high heat
Use a wok or sauteuse
Product is always cut in small
pieces
Used for either cooking or
finishing

Stir-frying
Some products in the stir-fry may
be pre-cooked partially or fully as
the situation requires.
Most of the concerns that apply
to saut also apply to stir fry.

Pan-Frying

Larger or portion size pieces are

used in pan frying (chops,
steaks, filets etc.)
Use enough fat to cover the
product by half.
Food does not jump.

Pan-Frying
Items are cooked for a longer time than
sauted items, in some cases they
are finished in the oven.
Usually there are no drippings in the
pan to make a sauce.


Fat Considerations when Sauting
The fat used in frying and sauting plays a
large part in determining the quality of the
finished product.
Smoke point:
The temperature at which a fat breaks down
and begins to smoke. Smoke point is mainly
determined by the amount of free fatty
acids in the fat.
As a rule, Animal fats are high in F.F.A. and
vegetable fats are low in F.F.A.s.

Smoking Point of Fats Source: EscoffierLe Guide Culinaire

Whole butter 250

F
Clarified butter
270-280 F
Animal fats 290 320F
Lard 400F

Goose Fat - 430F

Coconut oil - 480F
Vegetable oil 520F
Olive oil - 550F

Determining Doneness for Red

Meats
Term Appearance
Temperature
Blue-Center is red and cool Less than 140
(extra rare)
Rare-Center is red and warm
140F
Medium rare-Center is red-pink & hot 150F
Medium-Center is pink & hot 155-160 F
Medium well-Center is slightly pink 165 F
Well done- Center is brown
170 F

Determining Doneness for Red Meats

When cooking red meats using dry heat
cooking methods, they should never be
poked or broken to check doneness. This
will cause a considerable amount of color
and moisture to be lost.
With practice, touch is used to determine
doneness of protein. The firmer the protein
is to the touch, the more well done it is.

Moist Heat Methods of

Cooking

Poaching
Simmering
Boiling/Blanching
Steaming

Moist Heat Methods of

Cooking
Used for a wide range of products
(vegetables, meats, eggs, fish)
Used to both tenderize tough pieces
of meat and gently cook delicate fish
and vegetables.

Poaching 71 -82C
to gently cook in a flavored liquid
relatively low temperature applied to
tender or delicate products:
Eggs
Fish
Young Poultry

Poaching

Shallow poaching - small pieces of meat fish

or poultry cooked in very little liquid. The
poaching liquid is usually used to make a
sauce for the finished product.
Deep poaching - for large pieces, liquid to
cover. A court bouillon is commonly used for
deep poaching.
Court Bouillon Water & Acid (to coagulate
proteins) & Aromats

Simmering 85 -96C
Often mistakenly called boiling
As water is a much better conductor of heat
than air, moist heat cooking is generally
applied to tougher cuts of meat. Moist heat is
very effective in breaking down connective
tissue
Used for meats that require wet
methods
Broth is sometimes used for soups or
sauces Examples: Pot au Feu or Chicken
& Dumplings

Boiling / Blanching - 100C

Cooking quickly in rapidly boiling
liquid for the purpose of:
Par-cooking (vegetables)
Removing impurities (offal
meats and bones)
Removing bitterness from
vegetables (greens and cabbage)

Steaming above 100 C

The act of using steam, not water
vapor, as a heat transfer agent.
Three types:
High pressure
Low pressure
No Pressure
Adding pressure accelerates the
cooking process

Steaming
Due to the fact that high heat toughens
proteins, this method is rarely used
with meats.
Steam is best for:
Shellfish
Starches (rice and potatoes)
Vegetables (except fresh green)
Certain reheating operations

Steaming
High pressure usually 10 15#
Good for cooking vegetables fast
esp. frozen
Good for fast cooking of meats
that require wet methods
Low pressure usually about 5#
For every 1# of pressure you gain
about 3F
No Pressure steaming does not work
well for green vegetables.

Combination Cooking
Methods

Stewing
Braising

Ideal Items to be Braised

Typically tough pieces of meat that
require long, slow cooking.
Collagen-rich meats contribute
gelatin.
Examples: shoulder, leg, breast, and
shank cuts.

Larding
To insert strips of fat into a piece of meat
with a special needle. These strips of fat,
called lardons, are usually salt pork, slab
bacon, pancetta or fat back. The lardons
may be marinated before larding and are
inserted with the grain of the meat.

Combination Cooking

Braising and some stewing of meats are

considered combination cooking methods
because they employ both dry and moist
heat:
1. Dry heat to sear the meat (sealing in the
juices)
2. The addition of liquid to continue the
cooking process (simmering) and break
down connective tissue.

Braising
Braising can be done with:
large pieces (Pot Roast
portion size pieces (Swiss Steak)
small pieces
(stews)

Procedure for Braising

Meat must be seared by browning it at
high heat in a small amount of fat.
After searing mirepoix is added and
placed on the bottom of the pan
meat is placed on top.
Red meats - mirepoix is browned
White meat - mirepoix is sweated

Procedure for Braising

Tomato product is added (red meats only)
Usually meat is seared in the pan it is to be
braised in, if not the pan should be deglazed.
Liquid is added - stock, wine, marinade, beer,
light sauce , or water. The amount of liquid
added is in direct relation to the amount of
sauce needed for the finished product.
Recommended ratio is to cover the meat by
1/3 to 2/3.

Procedure for Braising

Herbs and spices are added.
Pan is brought to a simmer. A lid is
placed on it and it is placed in the oven.
Meat should be turned or basted
occasionally during the braising process
to produce a nice glaze.
Test for doneness: fork tender insert a
meat fork, if it pulls off easily the meat is
done.

Procedure for Braising

After the meat is done, a sauce can be

made from the degreased cooking liquid
(cuisson).
- Served as is
- Reduced to thicken and/or intensify
flavor
-Thickened with corn starch or with roux
to make a sauce (jus li)

White Braising
Different from standard braising in
that the items are either lightly
colored (seared) or not colored at all.
Done with some poultry items and
occasionally with large pieces of fish.

Stewing
Stew - a liquid food containing meat,
poultry, fish or vegetables; or any
combination.
Stewing is a moist cooking method
carried out with smaller cuts of meat by:
- Braising
- Simmering

Stewing
Stews can be divided into two
classifications
Brown stews (red meats)
White stews (white meats)
Blanquettes
Fricassees

Stews

Ragout - a general term referring to

white or brown stews.
Fricassee - a white ragout usually made
from white meat or small game, seared
without browning and garnished with
small onions and mushrooms.
Chili (con carne) - a ragout of diced or
ground meat, cooked with chilies,
onions and spices. Served with beans
in the stew or on the side.

Stews

Navarin - a brown ragout generally made

with lamb, turnips, peas, onions and
other root vegetables
Blanquette - a white stew in which the
meat is first blanched, then added to a
stock or sauce to complete cooking.
Blanquettes are finished with an egg and
cream liaison.
Goulash/paprikash - a Hungarian stew
made with red meat, onions and paprika.

Sous Vide