POWER SYSTEM

ANALYSIS
HARPREET SINGH
M.TECH (POWER SYSTEM)
ROLL NO. 30000815

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Anelectric power systemis a network of electrical components used
to supply, transfer, use electric power and the study of business deals
with:Generation
Transmission
Distribution

Of electrical energy is known as Power System Analysis

The

largest and most complex Man made system

Requirement of Power system Analysis

The Goal of course to provide an overview of interconnected power

system Operation

Modern method of power system analysis and design

The course will equipped the students with the basic tools for analyzing
the operation of power system in normal and emergency conditions.

It should be operated with the goal of achieving :

Highest reliability standards

Lowest operation cost

Minimum environmental impacts

Power System function (Block Diagram)

Storage
( like Fly Wheel,
Compressed Air)

Source of Fuel

Energy
Conversion

Transmission and
Distribution

Energy
Conversion
(Utilization)

THE SUPPLY SYSTEM

Energy is transmitted from generating station to consumer through the supply system which
consist of networks of conductors & associated equipment

It may be divided into distinct parts, the Transmission Line and the Distribution system

Transmission
Line

Primary
Transmission

Secondary
Transmission

Distribution
System

Primary
Distribution

Secondary
Distribution

Tertiary
Distribution

Elements of a transmission line

Generally in a.c. system there is the change in the voltage where the subdivision takes place,
the change being effected by transformation, and therefore there may be several working
voltages in the same system

Voltages have to be standardize

Primary transmission 400 kV and 275 kV

Secondary transmission 132kV and 66kV

Primary distribution 33kV

Secondary distribution 11kV and 6.6kV

Tertiary distribution 415V between phase, 240V to neutral

Transmission
765KV

AC Voltage Capacity in INDIA:

, 400KV, 220KV, 132KV

HVDC TRANSMISSION: 500KV

Power Transmission equipment

Transformer

Step Up and Step Down

Voltage Regulator

Phase Shifter (to control real power)

Transmission
Circuit

Line and Conductor

Breaker and Isolators

Lightning

Arrestors

Protecting

Relays

Shunt

and series reactors and capacitors

Facts

Devices (power electronics devices):SVC(Static Voltage Controller),UPSC(unified power flow controller),

Converter

and Inverter (Firing Devices like Thyristor)

For ac working the standard frequency is 50Hz. 60Hz and 50Hz are also used in some countries

Consumer load divide themselves into secondary or tertiary distribution. Those using more than
500kVA may be supplied from secondary distribution but a bulk of consumer uses less power are
supplied from tertiary distribution

In general conductor -> 1)Feeders 2) Distributors

Feeders: The conductors which connects the substations or in some cases generating station to
the area served by these stations

Distributors: They are characterized by numerous tapping which are taken from them for the
supply to the various consumers

Service mains: They are the connecting links between the distributors and the consumer
terminals

3)Service mains

The Difference b/w distributor and Feeder

The essential difference is that the current loading of the feeder is same as the whole of the
length, a distributor has a variable loading due to the large number of individual tapping taken
from it

THE ANALYSIS OF POWER SYSTEM

First a picture of the system must be developed in the form of a single line diagram on which all
the relevant circuits and equipment appear.

Secondly the relevant data for each item of equipment must then be collected and marked on the
diagram

Thirdly then the network is then solved for the various current and voltages making use of the
theorems and techniques outlined below.

NETWORK THEOREM

The Reciprocity Theorem: if an emf E acting in any branch p of a network consisting of linear
bilateral impedance results in a current I in a second branch q, then the same emf acting in branch
q will result in the flow of the same current I in the branch p. The ratio of the emf in branch p to
the resulting current in branch q is called the transfer impedance. It states that Zpq= Zqp

The Superposition Theorem: If several emfs of the same frequency act in a network composed of
linear impedance then the current in any branch is the sum of the currents which would flow if the
various emfs acted independently and all the other sources were replaced by their internal
impedances

Thevenins Theorem: This states that any system of the linear impedances with two accessible
terminals may be replaced by an emf acting in series with an impedance. The emf is that acting
between the terminals when they are unconnected externally, and the impedance is that presented
by the system when all the emfs in system is zero, the sources being represented by their internal
impedance only.

Star-delta and Delta-star Transformation:

AIDS TO NETWORK ANALYSIS

Models: These are small-scale of the system in which the voltages and current are reproduced to
a smaller scale and impedances to a larger scale. The results of the investigations performed are
converted to actual values of system currents and voltages using the appropriate scale factors.

Analogues: These are devices whose behavior follows equations which are identical to those
applicable to the power system in the particular problem under consideration

Digital Computers: These are machines which are capable of carrying out large numbers of
mathematical operation in very short time.

How to design a power system?

Efficient from a technological point of view

Must carry the load imposed on it without causing excessive heating

Voltage drop throughout the network must be kept to a minimum so as to hold the voltage at the
consumer's terminals within specified limit whatever the loading conditions

Design to provide for continuity of supply and, should a fault occur on the system, interruptions in
the supply to individual consumers should last for the briefest possible time if they are to occur at
all.

System should be simple to operate and maintain as possible & losses must be kept at minimum

Routine maintenance should be done without interruption of supply

A perfect system according to the above conditions could no doubt be constructed, but the cost must
be prohibitive that leads us to economics basis

It means ; this is not to equate economy with cheapness but to make the maximum possible use of
the resources which are available

Comparison of Copper Efficiencies for various

systems
The amount of copper requires for the transmission of a given amount of power over a given
distance using various system of supply
i.

d.c. three wire

ii.

a.c. single phase

iii.

a.c. three phase

1.

OVERHEAD SYSTEM

In this case the conductors are insulated from an earthed support and therefore the cost of the
insulation is determined by the maximum voltage to earth
2.

CABLE SYSTEM

In this case an underground cable system the conductors are separated from each other
by solid insulation and the cost of this is determined by the maximum voltage between
conductors

DISTRIBUTORS

A distributor is characterized by various tapping taken it along its length ro provide a supply to the
various consumers

The distributor will supply from substation at which transformation take place from a high
transmission voltage to a very much low distribution voltage

It is possible to incorporate in transformer some means by which the distributor voltage can be
controlled and it is not possible to do this at consumer terminal

Although the voltage at the supply end may be fixed at a required value and the voltage along the
length of the distributor will vary accordingly to the cross-sectional area (and therefore the
resistance)and the actual value of the load current at various section of distributor at various time

Since the voltage at the consumers terminals must remain within the specific limits as laid down by
the appropriate authorities

The main basis of distribution design is the drop in voltage at any point under any anticipated
loading conditions

D.C. Distributor fed at one end

Three-wire D.C. Distributor fed at one end

System consist of outer two conductors supplied at +/-V and an earthed middle wire or neutral
connected to the center point of supply.

It has the advantage over the two conductor system in that two voltages are available for the consumer,
the loads being connected either

between one of the wires and neutral and supplied at V volts

between the two outers in which case the potential applied to the load is 2V volts

The total current in the middle wire is the algebraic sum of the currents from the outers, those from the
positive being considered positive and the others negative

If the resultant drop in the neutral is positive it is added to the drop and deducted from the drop in the
negative outer, if negative then converse applies

FAULT LOCATION ON POWER SYSTEM NETWORKS

If a fault occurs on any section of a power system network it is likely that the intermediate effect
will be to interrupt, the supply to a section of the consumers

It may be possible to restore the supply by using alternative routes in the network, but this may
in turn mean that the circuit involved become overloaded , resulting in these, too, becoming
faulty.

It is important that any faults which do arise be located and repaired as quickly as possible and
various techniques have been adopted for this purpose

Fault Resistance

Under normal conditions there will be a finite resistance between the

conductors of a distribution system & between each conductor and earth due
to the fact that the system insulation will not be perfect, also the current will
flow to the earth under working conditions.

When a fault occurs on the system this insulation resistance will be

substantially reduced to such a value that will permit the flow of large
current earth, & in order to locate the position of the fault, some means of
measuring the value of this resistance may be necessary

Location of Overhead Line Faults

Overhead line faults usually take the form of a broken conductor or a damaged insulator, and
since both of these effects may be observed from the ground the general procedure in the past
has been to send our squad of men to walk along the length of a line and inspect it visually

For a high voltage line of between 80 -160 km in length which is not common in Britain, the
time to carry out its inspection can be very lengthy and for these cases an improved technique
has been developed which shows that if a voltage pulse travels along a line it will proceed at a
definite speed depending on the line parameters and will be reflected at discontinuities in the
line

This principle is utilized by connecting a pulse generator to the line after a fault has occurred
and transmitting pulse along the line. These are reflected back from the fault to the sending
end. The time taken for this transmission to the fault and back is measured and, knowing the
pulse velocity, this is used to calculate the distance of the fault from the testing end

This method is not capable of high accuracy but it serves to locate the fault to within a few
span lengths, the actual position then being found by visual inspection as before

Conductor Material & Construction

The two most common materials in use are hard-drawn copper and aluminum.

Aluminum has the advantage of high conductivity and low weight and is therefore suitable for long
spans, in spite of the fact that it also has a high coefficient of expansion and a low tensile strength

Either copper or aluminum may be used for short spans, but fro high voltage work where long spans
are involved aluminum conductors with a steel core added to provide strength are almost universally
used

Copper equivalent area: it is convenient to refer to the area of an aluminum conductor in terms of
area of a copper conductor having the same conductor

Stranded rather than solid conductors are usually used, each conductor being formed from a number
of separate strands

In case of steel-cored aluminum conductors the central strand or (strands) is steel. The main reason
for the use of stranded conductor is to avoid vibration troubles which may lead to a solid conductor
breaking at the supports, they are also easier to handle and, for a given cross-sectional area, they
can be obtained in much grater lengths

Resistance

When applying the above formula it may be necessary to take into account the fact that
the conductor may be stranded, thus increasing the resistance as compared with solid
conductor of equivalent cross-sectional area, the increase being of the order of 1 or 2%. A
further increase in resistance may be caused by skin effect

SKIN EFFECT: When a conductor is carrying steady state current (d.c.) This current is
uniformly distributed over the whole section on the conductor. However, an alternating
current flowing through the conductor doesnt distribute uniformly, rather than it has the
tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor. The tendency of alternating
current near the surface of a conductor is known as Skin Effect

The skin effect increase with permeability and conductor cross-section and also with the
frequency. Because of its dependence on cross-section it is much smaller with stranded
than with solid conductors.

Other Part of Power system analysis are

below:

Per unit System

One Line Diagram

Load Flow Studies

Optimal Power System operation

Symmetrical Fault Analysis

Un Symmetrical Fault Analysis

Power System Stability

Compensation in Power System

Power System Security

etc

Reference
Modern

power system Analysis by D.P. Kothari

NPTEL

(IIT Kharagpur Videos)

Power

System Analysis and design by B.R Gupta

Scribd.com
Slideshare.com
The

Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy

3rd Edition by H.COTTON H.BARBER