Manufacturing Processes

(ME361) Lecture 5
Shantanu Bhattacharya

Review of previous lecture

Elastic and plastic deformation.
Theoretical prediction of Modulus of
Rigidity from slip phenomenon.
Comparison with actually reported
values and reasoning of deviation owing
to dislocation theory.
Engineering stress and strain versus
true stress and strain.
Toughness

Friction and Wear

It is well known that whenever a solid surface slides over another , a

resistance force, commonly referred to as friction force, develops.
The friction phenomena was studied for the first time by Amonton and
Coulomb.
Let us consider two surfaces A and B in contact as in the figure below.
Though a surface may appear
smooth and plain, in reality no solid
surface is perfectly smooth.
Asperities are always present in a
solid surface, and when two bodies
are brought in contact, the real
contact takes place on certain high
points.
At the beginning of the contact the real contact area is zero and very
large localized stresses develop, causing plastic deformation of contact
regions.
Thus the real area of contact continues to increase till it is large enough
so that the corresponding stresses do not cause any further plastic
deformation.

Friction and Wear

Friction and Wear

Friction and Wear

This model is valid only when the real area of contact is much smaller
than the apparent area of contact.
If the normal load N is gradually increased, A real increases and
approaches the apparent area of contact A.
Once Areal reaches a value equal to A, the shear force does not
increase any further even if N is increased.
Under such a situation mechanisms other than welding of asperity
junctions become active making the friction phenomena quite complex.
One such phenomena is the locking of asperities. The coefficient of
friction in this case may vary and would tend to increase with increasing
load.

Wear and Mechanisms of

Wear
When a solid surface slides over another, both surfaces are subjected
to a gradual loss of material.
A fraction of material lost from one surface may be transferred to the
other body, whereas the rest gets removed in form of small (wear)
particles.
This process of gradual loss or transfer of material from a body (in
contact with another) is known as wear.
Mechanisms of Wear:
(1)Abrasion: If one of the surface contains very hard particles, then
dislodge the material from the surface in contact during sliding by
ploughing action. This is called Abrasion.
(2)Adhesion: When bodies in contact are of similar nature, the
asperities on the contacting surfaces tend to get welded and sliding in
such a situation would cause fracture of these welded junctions and
material is lost from both surfaces.
(3)Diffusion: A toms in metallic crystal lattice always move from a
region of high concentration to that of low concentration. This process is
known as diffusion. When two dissimilar bodies slide over each other
the atoms of various constituent elements diffuse across the junction,

Metals and alloys

The various materials used in engineering
include metals, alloys, ceramics and
polymers.
Metals are rarely used in pure form, and the
desired properties are normally obtained by
suitably alloying different metals.
Alloys unlike pure metals do not have a
fixed melting point.
Also, alloys can only be formulated if certain
conditions are satisfied.

Solid Solutions

An alloy can be defined as a mixture of two or more

materials, of which atleast one must be a metal.
The material having the largest % composition is known as
the solvent and the remaining are solutes and such a
mixture is called a solid solution.
In the solid state the solute atoms can be present in the
solvent in two different ways.
When the size of the solute atoms is small enough so that
they can occupy the interstitial spaces of the solvent
matrix,metals,
the solid
is of interstitial type.
For normal
the solution
only useful
material which can be accommodated in
the interstitial spaces is carbon.
The other types of solid solution is formed
when the solute atoms occupy the regular
matrix position by replacing some solvent
atoms. Such a solution is normally termed
as a substitutional solid solution.

Equilibrium Phase Diagram

The important metallurgical changes that take place when a mixture
of different metals or materials is gradually cooled from a liquid state
are best described with the help of equilibrium phase diagrams.
Phases are characterized by boundaries across which there exists
some discontinuities in physical properties.
Even a pure metal can be in different phases namely solid, liquid or
vapor.
Even within a single phase there can be different phases each
characterized by a different crystal structure.
When cooling is sufficiently slow, we can assume that all the phases
involved in a transformation process at a given temperature are in
equilibrium with each other.
Though, in general, the transformation of phases is governed by
temperature, composition and pressure, the latter plays an insignificant
role in the processes that we shall consider.

Equilibrium Phase Diagrams

A convenient way of describing the phase transformations is a

diagram where the phases at different combinations of temperatures
and compositions are indicated.
Such a diagram is called an equilibrium phase diagram. The word
equilibrium is indicative of the fact that at every temperature sufficient
time is provided at every temperature to complete all diffusion
processes.
The diagram in the left shows a
phase diagram of Ni-Cu alloy which
forms a solid solution without any
restriction on % composition.

The diagram has been

obtained by study of the
cooling curves for various
composition of the alloys.

Equilibrium Phase Diagrams

The figure on the right describes the
physical state of the mixture.
In the region at the top, the entire
material is in liquid state, whereas in
the bottom region, the entire material is
in the solid state.
Further in the intermediate region , the
material is in form of a mixture of solid
and liquid.
The boundary APB is called Liquidus
and indicates the temperature beyond
which the composition will be entirely in
the liquid state.
We
Similarly,
the boundary
AQB, indicating
can determine
the relative
proportion of liquid and solid by looking at
temperature
below
which theof the solid portion at the temperature
the ratio
XZ/ZY. The
composition
composition
solid,
theta
is givenwill
bybe
thetotally
abscissa
ofisthe point Y.
called
the Solidus.
Similarly,
the composition of the liquid portion at this temperature is
given by the abscissa of the point X.
It may be noted from the above figure that when there is no restriction
on the solid solubility, the solid state of an alloy looks like a pure metal.
Such an alloy is called a single phase alloy where nothing but the grain
boundaries are distinguishable.

Equilibrium Phase Diagram

The situation becomes more complex
when two metals, having no restriction
on solubility in the liquid state, are only
partially soluble or completely insoluble
in the solid state.
A solution of common salt and water
falls in this category.[Figure on the
right]
From this diagram it is obvious that at
a particular composition (i.e. 23.5%
NaCl), the mixture, like a pure material,
has a specific freezing point (-22 deg.
C).
This
Thissignifies
kind of mechanical
mixture of two solids is referred to as eutectic.
simultaneous
solidification
This eutecticof
composition
seen to have the minimum melting (freezing)
NaCl and His
2O.
temperature, and hence the name eutectic. (Greek word meaning easy
melting)
The solid portion is seen to be pure ice (H2O) whereas the liquid has a
composition given by the point X.
On further cooling X shifts towards the eutectic point E.
At -22 deg. C , the entire solid is ice and the liquid mixture has eutectic
composition. As no mixture can remain liquid below this temperature the

Equilibrium Phase Diagram

As is evident from the figure on the
right, due to simultaneous
solidification of both the
components, it is difficult to
distinguish the difference in an
eutectic composition.
Below the eutectic composition the
solid mixture consists of eutectic
mixture and solid H2O .
This mixture is called Hypoeutectic.
Beyond the eutectic composition,
the solid mixture has the eutectic
mixture and solid NaCl; this region is
The situation
is slightly
normally
referred
to as more complicated when the materials
are partially soluble in the solid state.
hypereutectic.
Partial solubility means that one component can form a solid
solution with the other only up to a maximum concentration. This
is normally the case with metallic alloys.

Equilibrium Phase Diagram

A typical equilibrium diagram is
shown in the figure on the right.
First of all, let us assume that the
maximum solid solubility of A in B is
temperature independent and has a
% composition XA .
The single phase solution have
composition at A of 0- XA is called
the -phase.
Similarly, the solid solution of B in
A having the composition of B from
0 to YB is called the phase.
The actual maximum solid
solubility's
Below the vary
eutectic
e, the
withtemperature
temperature,
entire
material
a mixture
two solid
as indicated
byisthe
dashed of
lines.
solutions , viz., and .
However, at eutectic composition, it is
difficult to distinguish between the
and the phase and this composition is
indicated as instead of + .

Equilibrium Phase Diagram

There are other types of phase transformations similar to the

eutectic transformation we have just described.
We have observed that during an eutectic transformation, a
single phase liquid changes to a two phase solid.
A similar transformation from a single phase solid is called an
eutectoid transformation.
Another transformation taking place at a constant temperature is
known as peritectic.
Above the peritectic temperature, all the liquids solidifies and the
atoms diffuse into the already existing solid, forming a single
phase solid.
When such a transformation starts from a two phase solid-solid
mixture, the transformation is called peritectoid.
The manufacturing properties of an alloy depend on the
properties, distribution, size, and shape of the various phases
present, and on the nature of phase interfaces.
The most commonly used alloy in engineering is that of iron and
carbon, popularly known as steel. So, we will discuss the ironcarbon equilibrium diagram.

Equilibrium Phase Diagram

Pure iron has two different allotropic forms.
The figure on the right shows the cooling
curve of pure iron.
Between 1537 deg. C and 1400 deg. C, the
solid iron exists in the form of bcc crystals and
is commonly known as iron.
From 1400 deg. C to 910 deg. C, the crystal
structure is fcc, the corresponding name being
iron.
Below 910 deg. C, the structure again
changes back to bcc, and this phase is
referred to as -iron.
There is no basic structural change between
The figure on the right lower corner shows the iron and iron.
carbon equilibrium diagram.
In this figure the portion involving the phase is not
of much interest so far as the normal manufacturing
processes are concerned because the temperature is
very high.
For casting process the liquid solid transformation at
1125 deg. C is significant, whereas for heat treatment
of steels, the transformations around 723 deg. C play
an important role.

Equilibrium Phase Diagram

At 1125 deg. C, the solubility of cementite in
iron is limited to 2% as indicated by point A
in the figure on the right.
This solid solution of -iron and Fe3C is
commonly termed as austenite.
In the bcc phases of iron, the solubility of
Fe3C is much smaller. (around 0.33% in phase and 0.1% in phase as indicated by
points C and B)
The solid solution of Fe3C in -iron is called
Ferrite. The eutectoid (E) composition of
ferrite and cementite is reffered to as pearlite
which
consists structure
of alternate
thin laminates
The different
of various
phases of
of
cementite
and ferrite.
steel
are indicated
in the figure in the right
lower corner.
The structure of ferrite is thick and rounded,
whereas that of cementite is thin and needle
like.
Ferrite is soft and cementite is very hard.
The transformation of austenite into ferrite
and cementite is achieved only when the

Manufacturing Technology
(ME361) (Lecture 6)
Instructor: Shantanu
Bhattacharya

Ultrasonic Machining
The use of Ultrasonics in Machine was first
proposed by J.O. Farrer in 1945.
The first machine tool using ultrasonic principle
was designed in 1954.
Originally, USM used to be for finishing operations
on components produced by electro-spark
machining.
This use became less important because of the
development in electric discharge machining.
Ultrasonic machining also gained prominence in
machining electrically nonconducting,
semiconducting and brittle materials in the
expanding electronic industry.

Basics of the USM process

The basic USM process involves a tool ( made of a ductile

and tough material) vibrating with a very high frequency
and a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the small gap
between the tool and the work piece.
The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard
and brittle work surface, resulting in the removal of the
work material in the form of small wear particles.
The tool material being tough and ductile wears out at a
much slower rate.

Mechanics of USM
The reasons for material removal in an USM process are
believed to be:
1. The hammering of the abrasive particles on the work surface
by the tool.
2. The impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.
3. The erosion due to cavitation.
4. The chemical action associated with the fluid used.
A no. of researchers have tried to develop the theories to
predict the characteristics of ultrasonic machining. The model
proposed by M.C. Shaw is generally well accepted and explains
the material removal process well.


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

M.C. Shaws model of USM

mechanics
In this model the direct impact of the tool on the

grains in contact with the work piece is taken into

consideration. Also, the assumptions made are:
The rate of work material removal is proportional
to the volume of the work material per impact.
The rate of work material removal is proportional
to the no. of particles making impact per cycle.
The rate of work material removal is proportional
to the frequency (no. of cycles per unit time).
All impacts are identical.
All abrasive grains are identical and spherical in
shape.

USM process
Thus, volume of work material removal
rate (Q)
Q vZ
where, v = volume of the work material
removal
per impact
Z = number of particles making
impact
per cycle
= frequency

Mechanics of USM
Let us now consider the impact of a
rigid, spherical abrasive grain of
diameter d on the work surface.

Mechanics of USM

Mechanics of USM

Mechanics of USM
Various Tool Position
during a USM cycle.

The position A indicates the instant the tool face touches the
abrasive grain.
The period of movement from A to B represents the impact.
The indentations, caused by the grain on the tool and the work
surface at the extreme bottom position of the tool from the position
A to position B is h (the total indentation).

Indentations on tool and work

surface at bottom position of
the tool

Mechanics of USM process