CYTOLOGY

Cell structure and function

Cells are dramatic

examples of the
underlying unity of
all living things..
Each cell is a
microcosm of life.

From its size and shape to the structure of its parts, a

cell is built to allow it to carry out life functions
efficiently. It is the smallest basic unit of life. Each of
the trillion of cells in your body is a highly organized bit
of life.
A desire to understand cells led early biologists to
develop the cell theory.

The CELL THEORY consists of the following principles:

1.
All organisms are composed of one or more cells in
which all life processes occur.
2.
The cell is the smallest and most basic unit of
organization of all organisms.
3.
New cells come from pre-existing cells through cell
division.

Two basic kinds of cells:

1. PROKARYOTIC cell:
- before the nucleus
- internal membrane-enclosed organelles
are absent
- DNA is not enclosed in a nucleus

2. EUKARYOTIC cell
true nucleus
characterized by highly organized
membrane-enclosed organelles (including a
nucleus containing the DNA)

The Animal Cell

Figure 3.4

The organization of all cell is basically similar.

To maintain homeostasis,
the contents of the cell
must be separated
from the external environment

All cells are alike in 3 ways:

1. CELL or PLASMA MEMBRANE
2. CYTOPLASM
- everything b/n the plasma membrane & the nucleus
- includes the Organelles & Cytosol
ORGANELLES (little organs)
-membranous structures
- work like miniature organs having specialized function w/in the cell.
CYTOSOL
-thick, jelly-like fluid
- made up of H2O, dissolved molecules like nutrients, mineral salts, proteins, ions,
O2, CO2, secretions & wastes produced by the cell.
- site of biological reactions & where most of the organelles are suspended
3. DNA (nucleus)

CELL SIZE and HOMEOSTASIS

Why are cells small?
-

to keep up w/ the
demands of regulating the passage of
materials
- surface-to-volume ratio limits increases in their
size: as the diameter of a growing cell expands,
the cells volume increases faster than its
surface area.
- surface area of a very large, round cell would
not provide enough area for the necessary
imports and exports of subs. for the cells
survival.
the inward flow of nutrients and the
outward flow of wastes would not be fast
enough, and the cell would die.

- small cells, random tiny motions of

molecules easily distribute materials. The
smaller or narrower the cell, the more
efficiently materials can cross its
surface and become distributed inside
it.

Let's look at the cell membrane and see how that membrane
keeps all of the pieces inside

When you think about a membrane,

imagine it is like a big plastic bag
with some tiny holes.
The bag holds all of the cell pieces
and fluids inside the cell and keeps
any nasty things outside the cell.
holes- to let some things move in
and out of the cell.

1.)

PLASMA MEMBRANE

-thin outer (8 nm thick) covering

- made up of lipid bilayer (mostly
phospholipids) & embedded
proteins
SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE
-Selective passage of molecules
into & out of the cell
-allows only some molecules &
ions to enter & exit the
cytoplasm freely

Cell Membranes Function

Keeps the cell intact ->
encloses the cells contents to
physically separate it from the
extracellular
environment
(outside the cell)
regulates the movement of
substances that enter & leave
the cell -> gatekeeper
control whatever enters &
leaves the cell
helps
maintain
cytoplasmic
composition and volume

The FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

- describes structure of cell membrane - proteins & phospholipids
arrangement

proteins & phospholipids

>tiles of a mosaic but are
embedded in a fluid & not in
a solid-cement like
structures (likened to a
slow-moving ships at sea)
lipid bilayer & proteins are
always in motion, the
phospholipids are able to
drift across the membrane,
move sideways, flex their
tails, changing places with
their neighbors
This model explains the
selective permeability of
biological membranes

SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY of cell

membranes
- allows the movement of some substances to move freely across
the membrane, but control the passage of large, charged molecules

CO2, O2, & other small, nonpolar solutes can dissolve &
cross easily in the lipid bilayer & so can H2O.
Ions & other large, polar molecules pass through w/ difficulty.
larger molecules, like glucose & other sugars.
Ions ( H+, Na-, K+, Ca++, Cl-)
Proteins can assist & regulate the transport of ions and polar
molecules

Transport mechanisms of substances across

the membrane
Passive transport. Substances
diffuse spontaneously
down their concentration
gradients, crossing a
membrane with no expenditure of
energy by the cell.
The rate of diffusion can be greatly
increased by transport
proteins in the membrane.

Active transport. Some

transport proteins act as
pumps, moving substances
across a membrane against
their concentration
gradients. Energy for this
work is usually supplied by
ATP.

ATP

Diffusion.
Hydrophobic
molecules and (at a
slow
rate) very small
uncharged
polar molecules
can diffuse through
the lipid bilayer.

Facilitated
diffusion. Many
hydrophilic
substances diffuse
through
membranes with
the assistance of
transport proteins,
either channel or
carrier proteins.

Figure 7.12

OSMOSIS

2.) N U C L E U S
control center of the cell
enclosed in a double
membrane & communicates w/
the surrounding cytosol via
nuclear pores
Functions:
controls the activities & proper
functioning of the cell
contains the DNA w/c stores
the genetic instructions for
building all of the cells proteins,
which consequently determines
a cells structure & its function

2.a.) Nuclear Membrane (envelope)

double-membraned structure
outer membrane (continuous w/
ER)
inner membrane (contains
nucleoplasm & its materials)
Perforated with PORES - allows
proteins to move b/n the
nucleus and the cytoplasm
(ribosomal units)
Function:
- encloses the nucleus &
separates the nuclear material
from the cytoplasm

2.b.) CHROMATINS

(Chromosomes)

Genetic material of the cell

Chromatins coil into rodshaped structures called
Chromosomes
CHROMOSOMES:
- made up of DNA & proteins
- Contains all the genetic
information of cells -> genetic
blueprint determines proteins
=> responsible for physical
features
GENES : segments of DNA in
specific patterns
Your genes make you who you
are.

The Animal Cell

Figure 3.4

The
CYTOPLASMIC
ORGANELLES

MITOCHONDRIA (mitochondrion)
- Powerhouse of the cell
small oblong-shaped structures
double-membraned structure
- outer membrane (forms its
capsular shape)
- inner membrane - highly
convoluted, forming folds called
CRISTAE-> increases surface area
for cellular respiration
C6H12O6+ O2CO2 + H2O + ATP
- has enzymes & proteins needed
for chemical rxns.
Function:
- sites for ATP production via
cellular respiration
( for primary energy source/ power for
a cell to move, divide, produce
secretory products)
- more than 1000 mitochondria have
been counted in a single liver cell !

RIBOSOMES

tiny granules distributed

throughout the cytoplasm &
some are attached to Rough
ER
Made up of RNA & proteins

Function:
- site of protein synthesis
(assembly of AA into proteins)
They are like construction
guys who connect one
amino acid at a time and
build long chains to make
a protein.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
a complex system (network) of
membranous channels &
saccules (flattened vesicles)
ER is continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear
envelope
2 types:
1. ROUGH ER
2. SMOOTH ER

( E.R.)

ROUGH Endoplasmic Reticulum

consists of flattened sacs &
tubes studded with
ribosomes on its surface
giving it a grainy/rough
appearance

Function:
-

Site of protein synthesis

and then packages proteins in
vesicles for transport usually to
Golgi apparatus

( ex. - Pancreas (RER-rich glands)

make & secrete enzymes that
ends up in the small intestine for
food digestion)

SMOOTH endoplasmic reticulum

Has no ribosomes attached

to it
Also contains enzymes
-

Functions:
lipid synthesis (ex. sex
hormones)
detoxifies drugs & other
harmful by-products of
metabolism(ex. in SER in liver
cells: ( toxic chemicals ----- H2O-

soluble cpds. excreted out of the body

stores & releases Ca+ ions

impt. in muscle contraction

As the ribosome builds the amino acid chain, the chain is pushed into the ER. When
the protein is complete, the rough ER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small
membrane bubble, can move to the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus.

GOLGI APPARATUS ( GOLGI BODIES)

of 3-20 flattened &
curved saccules that
resembles a stack of
pancakes
contains enzymes
Function:
modifies proteins & lipids
from ER, sorts them &
packages them in
vesicles for shipment to
specific destinations (like
cell memb. or other parts
of the cell)
Ex: Golgi can add a chain
of sugars to proteins =>
glycoproteins & glycolipids
found in plasma membrane

LYSOSOMES
the digestive organ of the cell
suicide bags
small sacs of hydrolytic
digestive enzymes (40 diff.
enzymes) breakdown
proteins, cplex sugars,
nucleic acids, and some
lipids
buds from the Golgi bodies
Functions:
for digestion of food
molecules, worn-out struc.
& unwanted materials
(ex.WBC engulfing the
bacteria )
fingers of a human embryo are at first
webbed, but they are freed from one
another as a result of lysosomal action

CENTRIOLES

found only in animal cells

2 centrioles at right angles
to each other near nucleus
Composed of 9 groups of
microtubules
Function:
- aids the cell during cell
division

form the spindle fibers during

cell division & guide
chromosomes to their
daughter cells

- also form the basal bodies of

cilia and flagella

Cilia

Projections of cells (seen as hair) that can move in undulating fashion

Short : 2-10 m

It is also used to move

materials (like mucus) on surface
of some tissues

Flagella

Flagella are whip-like structures that microscopic organisms

use like a tail to get around. They whip around and
sometimes twirl, pushing the cell along. These are similar to
cilia , but organisms usually just have one or two flagella
instead of thousands (like cilia).
Size: longer than cilia: not more than 200 m