Feed Pumps, Feed Injectors, Feed Regulators, Feed Heaters, Air Heaters and Steam Accumulators

Feed pumps, Feed Injectors, Feed
Regulators, Feed heaters, Air Heaters and

Steam Accumulators
A. Ranganath
Contents
Feed Pumps
Feed Injectors
Feed Regulators
Feed Heaters
Air heaters
Steam Accumulators
Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

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FEED PUMPS

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Boiler feed pump
Pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into

pressure energy due to which the fluid moves from one point to
another.
A Boiler Feed Pump is a specific type of pump used to pump feed
water into a steam boiler.
The water may be freshly supplied or returning condensate produced
as a result of the condensation of the steam produced by the boiler.
These pumps are high pressure units that take suction from a
condensate return system and can be of the centrifugal type or
positive displacement type.
The pump also supplies water for attemperation sprays that control
the Superheat/Reheater steam temperature.

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BFP Design & Considerations

Features of BFP:
Capital cost, running cost and maintenance costs to be optimised.
Single pump option generally not considered.
Satisfactory operation during start up and continuous operation.
Should have adequate margins on NPSH.
Should be capable of taking care of the pressure decay during turbine
load variations resulting in decay in de-aerator pressure.
Flow & head margins shall be provided.
Generally the optimum values are for flow margin 5% above the total
flow and Head margin of 3% above the total head.

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BFP Design & Considerations
Max. availability with a design life of 45,000 hrs

Rugged high speed machine
Designed for rapid replacement of complete shaft /rotor assembly
Substantially stiffened shaft with the number of stages, giving
improved rotor rigidity and lower shaft deflections
Use of balance drum to oppose axial hydraulic thrust with residual
unbalance being carried by external oil cooled thrust bearing.

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PUMP CHARACTERISTICS :
It is the relationship between Capacity, Head, Power and
Efficiency.
The graphs, showing the inter-relationship between Capacity,
Head, Power and Efficiency, are called Pump Characteristic
Curves.
Capacity :
It is the quantity of fluid flowing through the Pump for a
given time of
period.
It is expressed in m3/hr.
It is measured by weight method, volumetric method,
orifice plate or by weirs.
Head :
It is the measure of energy to move the fluid from one
point to another.
It is expressed in metres of liquid column.
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Power :
The horse power produced by the liquid is called as Water
Horse Power (WHP) or Liquid Horse Power which is
expressed as
WHP = ( Q H) / 75
where Q = m3/sec , H = mlc & = kg/m3
The power required to drive the pump is called as Brake

Horse Power (BHP) which is expressed as
BHP = ( Q H) / 75
where is the efficiency of Pump.
Efficiency :
It is the measure of the Pump performance.
It is the ratio of WHP to BHP.

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Characteristics of a Pump
H E A D ( m lc )
1800
5 2 .5 H z
1600
50 H z
1400
1200
4 7 .5 H z
P O W E R (k W )
1000
2000
1500
1000
500
90
70
60
50
20
40
15
30
10
20
10
N P S H R ( m lc )
E F F IC IE N C Y (% )
80
0
0
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60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450
S U C T IO N F L O W (c u b . m . / h r.)
Optimisation of sizing & design margins
Design margins are provided on equipment / systems to cater

for ageing, wear & tear, uncertainties etc
Conservative designs with large margins ( e.g. on flow and
head of pumps) and specifying suitability for abnormal
operating conditions result in lower efficiency and higher
auxiliary power consumption
Proper standby philosophy based on efficiency of operation,
availability & reliability, like following are considered.
1x100% Working + 1x100% Standby or
1x100% Working + 1x30% Startup or
2x50% Working + 1x50% Standby
etc.

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Pumps parallel operation

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Types of Boiler feed pumps

Based on the Casing splitting type, Pumps are classified as :
AXIALLY-SPLIT CASING TYPE

RADIALLY-SPLIT CASING TYPE

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AXIALLY-SPLIT CASING :
-
It refers to a Casing split in a plane parallel to the axis of rotation.
Both Suction & Discharge nozzles are located on bottom half of the
Casing so that the top half may be removed for inspection & repair without
disturbing the Pump proper and Suction & Discharge piping .
Advantages:
The pump internal can be inspected by simply removing
the top case; no need to remove its rotor
It is relatively inexpensive than a radial split case pump.
Disadvantages:
Typically limited to 204 deg C operating temperature due
to thermal expansion considerations
Typically limited to 248 bar maximum working pressure
due to the difficulty in bolting with a flat, unconfined, and
irregular case gasket, and due to the non-symmetrical
volute and suction areas between the upper half and
lower half casing.

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RADIALLY-SPLIT CASING :
-
It refers to a Casing split in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
It contains two Casings, the inner casing encloses the rotating parts of
Pumps and the outer casing encloses the inner casing.
Suction & Discharge nozzles are an integral part of outer casing and the
internal pump assembly can be removed without disturbing the piping connections.
Advantages:
Typically suitable for operating at very high temperature of up to
426 deg C as the centerline support design ensures equal case
thermal expansion in radial direction
The case and cover design is suitable for higher working
pressure than an axial split case pump due to its smaller bolting
area, symmetrical bolting pattern.
Full cartridge pull out for rapid changeover
Disadvantages:
The pump internal cannot be inspected without removing its rotor
assembly from inside the casing.
In some multistage pumps the rotor assembly cannot be
removed from the casing without removing the driver to clear the
way for the rotor assembly.
It is very expensive as the pump will have to be of double barrel
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construction.
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BFP TRAIN WITH COMMON FOUNDATION FRAME :

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General Problems/Fault finding of BFP

Problem
Possible cause
Pump fail to start
Motor problem / Seizure of pump set /

De-aerator level low low
Pump performance low
Problem in motor, suction strainer

choked, position of suction valve,
excessive wear of pump internals, etc.
Bearings overheating
Defective lube oil system, bearings

worn or misaligned, misalignment of
pump
Mechanical seals overheating
Insufficient cooling water, mechanical

seal damaged
Excessive noise and / or vibration
Misalignment of pump, bearing

misalignment, excessive clearance of
pump internals, rotating assembly out of
balance

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FEED INJECTOR

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Feed Injector
Why an Injector
Theyre a simple device that uses no extra power source.
The design is such that, live steam can inject water into the boiler that
supplies the steam. They are used to replace mechanical driven
pumps, as injectors are very reliable and very efficient.
Where it is used
Since very early 1900s the primary water source for putting water
into locomotive boilers.
What are Injectors
They are a device which is used by locomotive crew to take water
from the water tender and combine it with live boiler steam and inject
it into the boiler via a check valve.
It is achieved by opening the steam and water valves in their correct
order, they will pick up and inject the water into the boiler.
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Feed Injector
How does the Injector work
A injector has several pipe connections, live steam supply, water
supply, overflow and delivery to the boiler. Inside, it has several
conical shaped cones being, steam, combining and delivery.
Steam injector works on the principle of steam nozzle.
It utilises the kinetic energy of a steam jet for increasing the pressure
and velocity of feed water.
It is used for forcing the feed water into steam boiler under pressure.

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Feed Injector Operating Principle
The explanation is based on an injector operating at 12.41 bar,

When the steam valve is opened, steam flows through the steam
cone. It is here where the cone reduces in size and this in turn,
throttles the steam until it reaches a speed of approximately 1856
kph.
At this speed it is admitted to the water space or combining cone.
Where the steam is condensed and carries forward by the force of
its momentum about twelve times its own weight of water at speed
of about 144 kph.
The speed attained is sufficient to carry the combined jet across the
space to the delivery tube, and through the check valve into the
boiler.
When the steam mixes with the water and condenses, this is when
it forms the vacuum. This then allows atmospheric pressure to push
the water from the tender up into injector (a very important action).

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Feed Injector- Types

Lifting type
They are capable of lifting water from a lower into the injector then forcing it
past the check valve into the boiler. They can be placed above the water
supply on the locomotive.
It works when the steam is turned on first, this allows for a vacuum to be
formed causing the water to fill the void, under the influence of atmospheric
pressure.
Non-lifting type
Very similar to lifting type, the main difference is that they cannot lift water
into the injector. That means that the water supply must be above the
injector so that the water flows through the injector freely.
The non-lifting injector must have the water on first. Then seeing the water
flowing from the overflow, turn on the steam valve and it will work.
Turning off the injectors is the same for both. Turn off the steam first, then
the water.

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Feed Injectors- Advantages and

Disadvantages
Advantages:
No extra power source required
Very much suitable for small boilers like steam-driven locomotive
boilers.
The addition of heat to the flow of water lessens the effect of the
injected water in cooler the water in the boiler compared to the case
of cold water injected via a mechanical feed pump.
They are thermally efficient, as most of the heat energy in the
condensed steam is returned to the boiler increasing the thermal
efficiency of the process.
No moving parts as in case of pump.
Disadvantages:
Limited to very small boilers

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FEED REGULATORS

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Feed Regulators
A boiler feed water regulator valve used in many power plants is

required to transition from feedpump recirculation to operation of the
unit.
Not only is the valve used to initially fill the steam drum, it is also used
to control flow during normal operation when the steam drum is under
pressure. This valve, therefore, must address cavitation during initial
operation and provide adequate rangeability to address the entire
feedwater requirements.

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Feed Regulators
The regulator valve will begin to transition the flow from the
recirculation valve and will open as the recirculation valve closes.
The valve must have adequate cavitation protection during initial
filling of the drum and then transition to flow control mode.

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Feed Regulators
Feed regulators are used to control the drum level in power plant.
It is critical within power plant operation in drum boilers (or flow in
once-through boilers) to maintain the quantity of feed water to drum
to match with steam generation.
Drum or boiler level control is crucial at plant start-up, when the
pressure differential between the BFP and boiler is very high and
control is difficult.
Boiler feed water control valves must achieve a smooth start-up and
maintain required drum level for safe, reliable and efficient plant
operation.
The high pressure differential at start-up/low-load, and sensitive
control requirement, requires a high-performance severe service
control valve.

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Feedwater Control Valve Requirements

During Start-up and Low-load Operation
Operate at high pressure differentials of up to 240 bar (Drum Boilers),
without damaging the trim components, and maintaining good control
Smooth and quick transition from start-up to normal operation.
Consistent and reliable operation.
Tight shut-off to prevent leaks and subsequent valve erosion
During Normal Operation
A valve with a high capacity is required at normal operation to minimize
friction losses in the system to minimise Boiler feed pump power
requirements.
During Load Change (assuming fixed speed boiler feed pump)
Load changes are often experienced and this will result in a lower steam
pressure and drum pressure, but feed water pressure will remain similar,
resulting in a higher pressure differential. So the control valve used must
be able to meet a wide range of capacity requirements to provide full
flexibility toFuzeilentext
the plant.
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Feedwater Control Valve Problems

Erosion damage: Caused by:
Insufficient number of trim stages, creating excessive trim velocities
Poor seat design and insufficient seat force
Plug or stem breakage: Typically caused by high trim velocities, and
subsequent trim vibration and fatigue failure
Vibration and noise: Caused by cavitation and excessive internal
velocities.

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Consequences of Feedwater CV
Problems
Cavitation/flashing: Insufficient pressure reducing stages will cause high
velocity flows, leading to valve/trim damage owing to cavitation/flashing.
Lost Production: Poor control at low flows can lead to plant trips and/or an
extended start-up process.
High maintenance costs: Frequent replacement and repair of valve
components adds to maintenance costs.

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Problems caused by applying the wrong

Boiler Feedwater Control Valve

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FEED HEATERS

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Feedwater heaters
A Regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by

extracting steam from the turbine at various points. This steam, which
could have produced more work by expanding further in the turbine,
is used to heat the feed water instead.
The device where the feedwater heated by regeneration is called a
Regenerator or a Feedwater Heater (FWH).
A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is
transferred from the steam to the feedwater either by mixing the two
streams (open feedwater heaters) or without mixing them (closed
feedwater heaters).

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Why feed water heating?
Above figure shows the basic Rankine cycle with water heated only in
the boiler. The carnot cycle diagram for the same steam conditions is
superimposed and indicates the maximum efficiency, (that is the
greatest area of useful work) that can be achieved in any power plant
operating between the temperature T1 and T2. But practically this
cannot be achieved.
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Why feed water heating?

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No. Of feed heaters in a regenerative

cycle

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cycle

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cycle

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cycle
It is clearly seen that the efficiency improves with each additional heater but
the incremental gain with each becomes progressively smaller.

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Types of Feedwater Heaters

Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing
chamber, where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the
feedwater in a chamber. Ideally the mixture leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
Eg: Deaerator
The advantages of open heater are simplicity, lower cost, and high heat
transfer capacity.
The disadvantage is the necessity of a pump at each heater to handle
the large feedwater stream.

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Types of Feedwater Heaters

Closed Feedwater Heaters
In closed feedwater heater, the heat is transferred from the extracted
steam to the feedwater without mixing taking place.
The feedwater flows through the tubes in the heater and extracted
steam condenses on the outside of the tubes in the shell. The heat
released from the condensation is transferred to the feedwater through
the walls of the tubes. The condensate (also called as drip) formed
passes to the next lower pressure heater. This, to some extent, reduces
the steam required by lower pressure heater.

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Temperature rise of feed water in heaters

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Feed water heater

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Feed water heater performance
Feed water temperature rise: is the difference between the feed water outlet
temperature and feed water inlet temperature.
Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD): provides feedback on the feedwater
heaters performance relative to heat transfer and is defined as the saturation
temperature of the extraction steam minus the feedwater outlet temperature.
An increase in TTD indicates a reduction in heat transfer while a decrease a
improvement.
Drain Cooler Approach (DCA): is a method used to infer feedwater heater
levels based on the temperature difference between the drain cooler outlet and
the feedwater inlet. An increase in DCA temperature indicates the level is
decreasing; whereas, a decreasing DCA indicates rise in level.

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AIR HEATER

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Air Heater
Requirement of Air Pre-heater
Pre Heating Combustion air using Heat in out going Flue gas
Flue gas leaves Economiser at a temperature of approx. 3800C
Every 400C drop in Flue gas Temp. improves Boiler Efficiency by 2
to 3%
Air pre-heater is an heat recovery unit used in the last stage in

boiler.
It absorbs heat from exit flue gas in boiler and transfers the heat to
the incoming cold air.
In utility boilers it is used to heat the air required for combustion
purpose as well as dry and transport coal

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Advantages of using Air heater
BOILER EFFICIENCY IS INCREASED.

ENABLES EFFICIENT BURNING OF LOWER GRADE FUELS.
SAVINGS ON FUEL COSTS.
MORE STABLE AND EFFICIENT COMBUSTION OF FUEL.
PREHEATS AIR FOR COAL DRYING AND TRANSPORTING THE
PULVERISED COAL TO BURNERS.
REDUCED FLUE GAS VOLUME LEADS TO SIZE REDUCTION
IN POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT.

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Air Heater types
Based on Operating Principle

Recuperative and
Regenerative

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Recuperators
IN RECUPERATORS GAS AND AIR ARE ALLOWED TO FLOW IN

SEPARATE CHANNELS AND HEAT IS CONTINUOUSLY
TRANSFERRED FROM GAS TO AIR THROUGH THE WALLS OF
THE FLOW CHANNELS.
TUBULAR AIR PREHEATER

PLATE TYPE AIR PREHEATER
STEAM COIL AIR PREHEATER

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Tubular Air Heater

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Plate type Air Heater

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Steam Coil Air Pre-Heater (SCAPH)

HOT AIR
steam
COLD AIR
COLD AIR
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Advantages of Recuperative Air Heaters

Advantages
No moving parts
No possibility of Fly ash carry over by air
Disadvantages
Occupies more area
Tube puncture results in air mixing with Flue gas
Soot deposits reduce heat transfer
Less effective cross flow heat transfer
More material cost
High pressure drop
Severely affected by cold end corrosion

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Regenarators
IN REGENERATOR TYPE GAS AND AIR ALLOWED TO FLOW

ALTERNATIVELY IN THE SAME CHANNELS TO STORE AND
RETRIEVE HEAT RESPECTIVELY.
CHANNELS ARE MADE IN MATRIX FORM TO ACHIEVE THE
HEAT TRANSFER.
TYPES
Rotating matrix
(Ljungstrom RAPH)
Stationary matrix (Rothemuhle RAPH)

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Ljungstorm Air Heater Working Principle

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As the rotor revolves, waste

heat is absorbed from the hot
exhaust gas passing through
one-half of the rotor.
This accumulated heat is
released to the incoming air as
the same surfaces pass
through the other half of the
rotor.
The heat transfer cycle is
continuous as the surfaces
are alternately exposed to the
outgoing gas and incoming air
streams.
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Advantages, Disadvantages and Frequently

encountered problems of RAPH
Advantages:
Compact and hence save space and structure cost.
Can be effectively cleaned when in service
Economically suitable for high capacity boiler. As the boiler size increases heat
transfer area required in air heater also increases and hence Regenerator is
better in comparison with Recuperative as it assumes a greater size.
Disadvantages:
Moving parts need operators attention.
Frequently encountered problems
Fouling, plugging and corrosion
Erosion (normally encountered in tubular air heaters)

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Air heater fire
All types of air heaters are a potential fire hazard particularly at start-up of the
boiler and shut-down especially if the heater is having a thick deposit of soot.
Finely divided particles of combustible matter is deposited on the low
temperature air heater surface when the combustion is poor in the furnace
due to various reasons.
If the ignition temperature at combustible matter is reached and sufficient
oxygen is available, fire occurs and may sometime destroy the whole air
heater, duct etc., if not noticed earlier and put off.
The outlet gas and air temperatures from the air heater will rise above normal
in case of fire and is the best indication to detect fore and to take necessary
step, for fighting.
Use of on-load cleaning at frequent intervals during boiler starting, at low load
or during shutting down periods will reduce the hazard to a great extent.
Cutting out of fuel automatically on fire out, and automatic combustion
monitoring are essential features of modern boiler which may eliminate this
hazard.

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Significance of Acid Dew Temperature

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STEAM ACCUMULATORS

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Steam Accumulators
Generally used in pulp and paper industry, chemical plants or

breweries, combined heat and power generation process, etc.
It can be noted that, in the processes, the usage of steam sometimes
is very rapid and may cross the limits of boiler capacity and this leads
into rapid depressurisation of boiler.
A rapidly depressurised boiler can suffer poor steam quality and
nuisance of trips on high/low water levels. And bringing back the boiler
into service takes its own time.
To mitigate these consequences of high steam demand, the engineers
must oversize the boiler, design in back pressure regulators to control
depressurisation or use a steam accumulator.

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Steam Accumulators
Generally, oversized of boiler means additional cost, and back

pressure regulation will starve the steam-using equipment, causing
high cycle times.
One solution to this challenge is to incorporate steam accumulation
equipment into the steam system design.

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Steam Accumulators

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To meet these instantaneous steam load demands, usage of a dry

accumulator or usage of a wet accumulator are preferred.
Both design enhancements increase the mass of stored steam.
Either type of steam accumulation will not create steam, but rather,
create a means to store steam.
Only adding fuel energy to a boiler will create more steam.

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Dry Accumulator
This extra amount of steam will slow down the depressurisation rate
of the boiler and help mitigate water carryover from the boiler
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Wet Accumulator
If more instantaneous steam is required than a dry accumulator can

supply, then a wet accumulator can be used.
A wet accumulator is a pressurised vessel in line with the boiler
steam line. This vessel is pressurised to the boiler operating pressure
and will discharge stored steam when the header is depressurised.
Once depressurised, the boiler will recharge the accumulator when
the load equipment no longer requires steam.
Therefore, during idle periods of the steam use cycle, the
accumulator can be fully recharged and be readied for the next cycle.
The amount of stored steam is proportional to the water volume and
change in pressure (based on the flash steam charts).
This wet accumulator will store significantly more steam than the
same size dry accumulator.

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References
Google
Central Electricity Generating Board Manuals
BHEL Manuals
Steam Accumulators and Steam Boiler Response to Load
Changes, by C. Merritt, Fulton Thermal Corp.
Friends and Colleagues

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Thank You

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Feed pumps, Feed Injectors, Feed

Regulators, Feed heaters, Air Heaters and

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Boiler feed pump

Pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

BFP Design & Considerations

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

BFP Design & Considerations

Max. availability with a design life of 45,000 hrs

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

The power required to drive the pump is called as Brake

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Optimisation of sizing & design margins

Design margins are provided on equipment / systems to cater

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Pumps parallel operation

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Types of Boiler feed pumps

AXIALLY-SPLIT CASING TYPE

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

It refers to a Casing split in a plane parallel to the axis of rotation.

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

It refers to a Casing split in a plane perpendicular to the axis of

BFP TRAIN WITH COMMON FOUNDATION FRAME :

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

General Problems/Fault finding of BFP

Pump fail to start

Motor problem / Seizure of pump set /

Pump performance low

Problem in motor, suction strainer

Defective lube oil system, bearings

Mechanical seals overheating

Insufficient cooling water, mechanical

Excessive noise and / or vibration

Misalignment of pump, bearing

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Feed Injector Operating Principle

The explanation is based on an injector operating at 12.41 bar,

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Feed Injector- Types

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Feed Injectors- Advantages and

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

A boiler feed water regulator valve used in many power plants is

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Feedwater Control Valve Requirements

Feedwater Control Valve Problems

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Problems caused by applying the wrong

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

A Regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by

Sonntag, 4. Dezember 201

Why feed water heating?

Why feed water heating?