Agriculture and Food: Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed

Agriculture and Food
Cunningham - Cunningham
Outline
Nutrition and Food Supplies

Soil
Structure
Erosion
Agricultural Resources
Water
Energy
Genetic Engineering
Sustainable Agriculture
Subsistenceagriculture
Commercialagriculture
NUTRITION AND FOOD SUPPLIES
World food supplies have more than kept up

with human population growth over the past
two centuries.
1950 - 2.5 billion people - average daily
diet was less than 2,000 calories/person.
2001- 6.0 billion people - world food supply
can provide more than 2,500
calories/person.
Nutrition
The most common dietary problem in wealthy

countries is over-nutrition.
In NA and Europe, average daily caloric
intake is 3,500 calories.
Sub-Saharan Africa has not kept food
production up to pace of population growth.
Collapse of Soviet Union also led to significant
collapse in food production.
Chronic Hunger and Food Security
About 1 in 5 people in the developing world

are considered chronically hungry.
200 million children
- Can lead to permanently stunted growth,
mental retardation, and other
developmental disorders.
Poverty is the greatest threat to food
security (The ability to obtain sufficient
food on a daily basis).
Chronic Hunger and Food Security
Essential Nutrients
Malnourishment - Nutritional imbalance

caused by a lack of specific dietary
components.
In poorer countries, people often cannot
afford to purchase an adequate variety of
foods, including meats and vegetables.
Risk of Inadequate Nutrition
Famines
Famines are characterized by large-scale food

shortages, massive starvation, social
disruption, and economic chaos.
Mass migrations often occur because
productive capacity has been sacrificed.
Environmental conditions are immediate
trigger, but politics and economics are often
underlying problems.
- Arbitrary political boundaries block
historic access to refuge areas.
Famines
Aid policies of rich countries often serve to

distribute surplus commodities and produce
feeling of generosity.
Food camps have serious drawbacks:
- Stress and crowding
- Lack of sanitation
- Close contact to epidemic diseases
MAJOR FOOD SOURCES
Three crops deliver majority of worlds

nutrients:
Wheat, Rice and Corn
-
Potatoes, barley, oats and rye are

staples in cool, moist climates.
Cassava, sweet potatoes, and other
roots and tubers are staples in warm wet
climates.
Meat and Milk
Meat and Milk distribution highly inequitable.

Core makes up 20% of world population,
but consumes 80% of meat and milk.
60% of production occurs in lesser
developed countries.
90% of grain grown in NA is used to feed
livestock.
Meat
Every 16 kg of grain and soybeans fed to

beef cattle in feedlots produce about 1 kg of
edible beef.
If we ate the grain directly, we would obtain
21x more calories and 8x more protein
than we get from eating the beef.
Seafood
Seafood is an important protein source.

Since 1989, 13/17 major fisheries have
declined or become commercially inviable.
Between 1970-1990, number and average
vessel size of world fishing fleet doubled.
Now have twice the capacity needed to
extract total annual sustainable harvest.
- Catching $70 billion cost $124 billion.
1/4 animals considered by-catch.
SOIL: A RENEWABLE RESOURCE
Soil - A complex mixture of weathered

minerals, partially decomposed organic
materials, and a host of living organisms.
At least 20,000 different soil types in the
US.
- Vary due to influences of parent material,
time, topography, climate, and organisms.
Can be replenished and renewed.
Ways we use and abuse soils
Approximately 11% of the earths land area is

currently in agricultural production.
Up to four times as much could potentially
be converted to agricultural use.
- Much of this additional land suffers from
constraints.
Soil Degradation
Land Resources
In developed countries, 95% of recent

agricultural growth has been from altered
agricultural practices (pesticides - fertilizer).
Less land cultivated in NA now than 100
years ago.
Many developing countries are reaching limit
of lands that can be exploited for agriculture
without unacceptable social and
environmental costs.
Land Degradation
Estimated nearly 3 million ha of cropland

ruined annually via erosion, 4 million ha
transformed into deserts, and 8 million ha
converted to non-agricultural uses.
Land Degradation
Definitions of degradation are based on both

biological productivity and expectations of
what land should be like.
Generally, land is considered degraded
when soil is impoverished or eroded, runoff is contaminated, or biodiversity is
diminished.
- Water and wind are the driving forces for
vast majority of soil degradation.
Land Degradation
Erosion
Erosion is an important natural process,

resulting in redistribution of the products of
geologic weathering, and is part of both soil
formation and soil loss.
Worldwide, erosion reduces crop
production by equivalent of 1% of world
cropland per year.
Mechanisms of Erosion
Rill Erosion - Small rivulets of running water

gather together and cut small channels in the
soil.
Gully Erosion - Rills enlarge to form bigger
channels too large to be removed by normal
tillage.
Streambank Erosion - Washing away of soil
from established streambanks.
Mechanisms of Erosion
Wind can equal or exceed water as an

erosive force, especially in a dry climate and
on flat land.
Intensive farming practices:
- Row crops leave soil exposed
- Weed free-fields
- Removal of windbreaks
- No crop-rotation or resting periods
- Continued monocultures
CHEMICAL
INPUTS
Fertilizers
Pesticides
Fungicides
Herbicides
(weed killers)
Fertilizer
Lack of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus

often limits plant growth.
Adding nutrients via fertilizer usually
stimulates growth and increases crop
yields.
- 1950 - 90 Average of 20 to 91 kg/ha
fertilizer used.
Manure and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are
alternative methods of replenishing soil
nutrients.
Pesticide Problems
Non-Target Species
Up to 90% of pesticides never reach
intended target.
Pesticide Resistance
Resistant members of a population survive
pesticide treatment and produce more
resistant offspring.
- Pest Resurgence
Pesticide Resistance
Environmental Persistence and Mobility
Many persistent organic pollutants were

banned globally in 2001.
Use was banned or restricted in
developing countries for years, but
between 1994 and 1996, the US shipped
more than 100,000 tons of DDT and POPs
annually.
- Many returned to US in agricultural
products and migrating wildlife.
DDT pesticide effect on birds;

U.S. recovery since ban
Still exported
to Periphery
Human Health Problems
WHO estimates between 3.5 and 5.0 million

people suffer acute pesticide poisoning, and
20,000 die, each year.
At least two-thirds resulting from
occupational hazards in developing
countries.
Long-term health effects difficult to
conclusively document.
- PCBs have been linked to learning
deficiencies in children.
Intake during mothers pregnancy.
Alternatives to Pesticide Use

Crop Rotation
Mechanical Cultivation
Flooding Fields
Habitat Diversification
Growing in Pest-Free Zones
Adjusting Planting Times
Plant Mixed Polycultures
ENERGY
Farming in industrialized countries is highly

energy-intensive.
Between 1920-1980, energy use rose
directly with mechanization of agriculture,
and indirectly with spraying of chemicals.
Altogether, US food system consumes
16% of total energy use.
- Most foods require more energy to
produce, process, and transport than we
yield from them.
Energy
NEW CROPS AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
Most of world food comes from 16 widely

grown crops.
At least 3,000 species of plants have been
used for food at some point in time.
- Many new or unconventional varieties
might be valuable food supplies.
Winged-bean
Triscale
Green Revolution
Most major improvements in farm production

have come from technological advances and
modification of a few well-known species.
Corn yields jumped from 25 bushels per
acre to 130 per acre in last century.
- Most of gain accomplished through
conventional plant breeding.
Also seen rise of dwarf varieties.
Green Revolution - Spread of new varieties
around the world.
Green Revolution
Green Revolution
benefits
Core exports high-yield miracle seeds
Needed oil-based fertilizers, pesticides
Asian rice crop up 66% in 1965-85
Favored areas with good soil, weather
Green Revolution
Green Revolution
drawbacks
Favored farmers who could afford seeds,

inputs, machines, irrigation
Indebted farmers lost land, moved to cities
New monocrops lacked resistance to disease/pests
Environmental contamination, erosion
Oriented to export cash crops, not domestic food

Genetic Engineering
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Contain DNA possessing genes borrowed
from unrelated species.
- Can produce crops with pest-resistance
and wider tolerance levels.
- Opponents fear traits could spread to
wild varieties, and increased expense
would largely hurt smaller farmers.
70% of all processed foods in NA contain
transgenic products.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering
Biotechnology:
Using organisms to
Make or modify products
Improve plants or animals
Develop new microorganisms
Crossing different species

Genetic engineering
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
Consumer concerns
began in Europe,
now in U.S. too
Biotechnology
benefits in agriculture
Increase yields
Increase pest resistance
Grow crops in new areas
Biotechnology
drawbacks in agriculture
High costs (available to few)
Monocrops have less tolerance to disease
Possible health effects, contamination of crops
Corporate patents on life forms
Bovine Growth
Hormone (BGH)
Starlink corn
Monarch butterflies
and corn pollen
Possible
effects of
Bt-modified
corn pollen
Cloning
First calf cloned in
Wisconsin, 1997.
Many clones die
of complications.
Ethical and
economic conflicts
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Soil Conservation
Managing Topography
- Contour Plowing - Plowing across slope
to slow flow of water.
- Strip Farming - Planting different crops
in alternating strips along land contours.
- Terracing - Shaping land to create level
shelves of earth to hold water and soil.
Soil Conservation
Providing Ground Cover

Annual row crops cause highest rates of
erosion because they leave soil bare for
much of the year.
- Leave crop residue after harvest.
- Plant cover crops after harvest.
Soil Conservation
Reduced Tillage
Minimum Till - Chisel plow
Conserv-Till - Coulter (Disc)
No-Till - Drilling
Often farmers using conservation tillage
must depend relatively heavily on pesticides.
Traditional tillage helped control weeds
and pests.
Summary
Nutrition and Food Supplies

Major Food Sources
Soil
Structure
Erosion
Agricultural Resources
Water
Energy
Genetic Engineering
Sustainable Agriculture

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Agriculture and Food: Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed

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Agriculture and Food

Nutrition and Food Supplies

NUTRITION AND FOOD SUPPLIES

World food supplies have more than kept up

The most common dietary problem in wealthy

Chronic Hunger and Food Security

About 1 in 5 people in the developing world

Chronic Hunger and Food Security

Malnourishment - Nutritional imbalance

Risk of Inadequate Nutrition

Famines are characterized by large-scale food

Aid policies of rich countries often serve to

MAJOR FOOD SOURCES

Three crops deliver majority of worlds

Potatoes, barley, oats and rye are

Meat and Milk

Meat and Milk distribution highly inequitable.

Every 16 kg of grain and soybeans fed to

Seafood is an important protein source.

SOIL: A RENEWABLE RESOURCE

Soil - A complex mixture of weathered

Ways we use and abuse soils

Approximately 11% of the earths land area is

In developed countries, 95% of recent

Estimated nearly 3 million ha of cropland

Definitions of degradation are based on both

Erosion is an important natural process,

Rill Erosion - Small rivulets of running water

Wind can equal or exceed water as an

Lack of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus

Environmental Persistence and Mobility

Many persistent organic pollutants were

DDT pesticide effect on birds;

Human Health Problems

WHO estimates between 3.5 and 5.0 million

Alternatives to Pesticide Use

Farming in industrialized countries is highly

NEW CROPS AND GENETIC ENGINEERING

Most of world food comes from 16 widely

Most major improvements in farm production

Core exports high-yield miracle seeds

Needed oil-based fertilizers, pesticides

Asian rice crop up 66% in 1965-85

Favored areas with good soil, weather

Favored farmers who could afford seeds,

Indebted farmers lost land, moved to cities

New monocrops lacked resistance to disease/pests

Environmental contamination, erosion

Oriented to export cash crops, not domestic food

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Make or modify products

Improve plants or animals

Develop new microorganisms

Crossing different species

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

Increase pest resistance

Grow crops in new areas

High costs (available to few)

Monocrops have less tolerance to disease

Possible health effects, contamination of crops

Corporate patents on life forms

Providing Ground Cover

Nutrition and Food Supplies