Transmission Limits

Conductor Loop Resistance Limit

a. Trunks
2000 ohms between EWS and S x S
Exchanges
4000 ohms between EWS Exchanges
1700 ohms between S x S Exchanges
b. Subscriber loop
1000 ohms for EWS Exchanges
1300 ohms for S x S Exchanges
dB Loss Limit
a) Trunks (between EWS exchanges, S x S to EWS)
Direct: 7 dB
Tandem: 4 dB
b) Trunks (between exchanges and subscriber
PABX/PBX lines)

Subscriber (Single or Party Line)

Station to serving C.O. 8.5 dB

Transmission Limits

Methods to attain longer loops without

exceeding loss limits

1. by increasing conductor diameter

2. by using amplifiers and/or loop
extenders; a device which increases
battery voltages on a loop that
extends its signaling range.
3. use inductive loading

Transmission Limits

LOADING
a scheme to improve transmission of
cable pairs by the addition of
inductive devices in series with the
cable pair.
Loading coil coil of wire around a
magnetically permeable core
constituting inductances which can
be inserted in a circuit at regular
intervals to improve transmission.

Code for Load-coil Spacing (old method)

Code Letter

Spacing (ft)

Spacing (m)

A
B
C
D
E
F
H
X
Y

700
3000
929
4500
5575
2787
6000
680
2130

213.5
915
283.3
1372.6
1700.4
650
1830
207.4
649.6

*The most commonly used spacing are D and H

Loaded Cables are designated 19-H-44, 24-D88, etc.

The first number indicates the wire gauge.

The next letter indicates the spacing as
shown in the table
The third number is the inductance of the

General Rules for Loading (new method)

1. Locate the first loading point 3000

ft. from the Central Office
2. Locate the succeeding loading
point 6000 ft. from the last loading
point.
3. The length of the cable beyond the
last loading point, including bridge
tape is not less than 3000 ft. or
more than 6000ft.
4. Limit bridge tap to 6000 ft.
5. There should be no bridge tap or
station between loads.

BORSCHT Function

BORSCHT Function

MULTIPLEX
ING

Frequency
Division
Multiplex
a method of multiplexing in which the

total frequency spectrum available is

divided into channels, each of which
occupies a particular frequency range
all of the time.

FDM Hierarchy
Multiple sources that originally
occupied the same frequency
spectrum are each converted to a
different frequency band and
transmitted simultaneously over a
single transmission medium.
FDM is an analog multiplexing
scheme. The information entering
an FDM system is analog and it
remains analog throughout
transmission.

FDM Hierarchy

SUPER JUMBO GROUP

FDM Hierarchy
Message Channel

FDM Hierarchy
Basic Master group

Note: The type of

Master group used
depends on the
system capacity
and whether the
transmission
medium is a
coaxial cable or a
microwave radio.

FDM Hierarchy
Super Jumbo group

Note: Between any

two adjacent
super groups,
there is a void
band of
frequencies that is
not included
within any super

FDM Hierarchy

Echo and Singing

return of a speakers voice

a reflection of the voice
that part of the voice energy that bounces off
obstacles in a telephone connection.
Due to impedance mismatch
Major annoyance to the telephone user

Two factors that determine the degree of

annoyance of echo
1. loudness
2. how long it is delayed

Echo and Singing

Singing
is the result of sustained oscillations
due to positive feedback in telephone
amplifiers or amplifying circuits.
echo that is completely out of control.

Primary Cause of Echo and Singing

Mismatch between the balancing network and its 2-wire connection
association with the subscriber loop.

ES Echo Suppressor
An electronic circuit which is inserted
into a 4-wire trunk path effectively to
block the passage of reflected signal
energy.

Noise in a Telephone System

Noise in a Telephone System

Signal to Noise Ratio

The amount by which a signal level exceeds the noise

within a specified bandwidth.
S/N of Corresponding Instruments based on
Customer Satisfaction
Voice 30 dB
Video 45 dB
Based on a Specified Error Rate
Data 15db

Transmission Losses

VNL = 0.204L + 0.4

V

OCL = 0.102D + 0.4N

+5

Telephone Traffic

Traffic refers to the average of all user

requests being serviced by the network
Attempt any effort on the part of a traffic
source (subscriber line, selector, etc.) to seize a
circuit, switch or other traffic channel, whether
or not the attempt is successful.
Call any actual engagement or seizure of a
circuit, switch or other traffic channel.
Calling rate the number of calls per unit of
time
Busy Hour the continuous 60 minute period of
the day during which the highest usage occurs.
Call Concentration The ratio of the busy hour
to the total day calls. It is the reciprocal of
Length of Day
Holding Time length of time during which a
call engages a traffic path or channel

Telephone Traffic

Full Availability Switches each inlet has access

to any outlet. Every free inlet is at all times able
to test every outlet.
Limited Availability when not all the free
outlets in a switching system can be reached be
inlets.
Carried Traffic the volume of traffic actually
carried by a switch.
Offered Traffic the volume of traffic offered to
a switch.

Traffic

The total occupied time of circuit, switch or other

traffic paths.
Product of calls and the average holding time of those
calls.

A=CxT
where: A = Traffic flow
C = calling rate per hour
T = the average holding time per call

Traffic UNITS

1. Erlang or Call Hour1(Ch)

Erlang = 30 EBHC = 36 CCs = 60 Cm
- preferred unit
- named after the Danish mathematician
A.K. Erlang
2. Call Minute (Cm)
- One Cm is the quantity represented by
one or more calls having an aggregate
duration of 1 minute.
3. Call Second (Cs)
- One Cs is the quantity represented by
one or more calls having an aggregate
duration of 1 minute.
4. Cent Call Second (CCs)
One CCs is the quantity represented
by one 100s call or by aggregate of 100Cs
of traffic.
5. Equated Busy Hour Call (EBHC)
- One EBHC is the average intensity in one
or more traffic paths occupied in the

Grade of Service (P)

a measure of the probability, that, during a

specified period of peak traffic, a call offered
to a group of trunks or circuits will fail to
find and idle circuit at the first attempt.
P = number of lost calls / total number of offered calls
Typical grade of service: P = 0.01; an average or one call out of 100 will be
blocked or lost during the busy hour.

Note: Lost calls or

Blocked Calls refer
to calls that fail at
the first trial.

Methods of Handling Lost Calls

Lost Calls Cleared: Erlang B Loss Probability

Equation
- a call that cant be served
immediately is constantly cleared
from the system and does not rea p p e a r.

P=

An
____n!___
n

x= 0

Ax

x!

Where: P = Probability
N = Number of circuits
A = Traffic Flow; erlang

Methods of Handling Lost Calls

Lost Calls Held: Poisson Loss Probability

Equation
a call which is not immediately
served continues to demand
ser vice for a maximum inter val of
one holding time until a switching
equi pment becomes available.

P = eA

x=
x!
n

Ax

Methods of Handling Lost Calls

Lost Calls Delayed: Erlang C Delay

Probability Equation
a c a l l f a i l i n g t o i m m e d i a t e l y fi n d
a s e r v e r, w a i t s , e n t e r s a q u e u e
until one becomes available

An n _
nA _

n!
P = n-1
Ax + An n_
x= 0
x! n! n-A

Building Telephone Facilities

Service Entrance will be defined as wires or cables entering the

building, terminated to the main cross connecting point within the
building form the nearest telephone facility.

Types of Service Entrance

Service Entrance

Aerial
Undergroun
d

Aerial

Undergroun
d

General Recommendations for Aerial Service Entrances

Size of entrance conduct shall not

be less than 50 mm in diameter.
Recommended initial conduct
should be capable of handling the
ultimate telephone requirements
of the building.
Generally, the maximum span from
telephone pole to building should
be 30 m.
Minimum recommended
separation
A. Minimum clearances between
telephone cable and power
entrance must be 1 m radial
distance.
B. Minimum clearance from
ground level when crossing
the street must be 5.5 m.

General Recommendations for Underground Entrance Condu

1. Corrosion-resistant material/PVC duct.

2. should not include more than 2 90 degree bends.
3. Metallic conduit to be reamed, bushed and or
capped.
4. Minimum depth is 600 mm under areas used for
vehicular traffic inside private property.
5. Conduits placed on private property must not be
terminated in joint-use manholes with electrical
cables.
6. Conduits should be separated from power conduits
by not less than
- 300 mm in well temped earth
- 50 mm of concrete
7. The size of underground entrance conduit within
the building shall be the same size as the service
conduit outside the building and in no case smaller
than 75 mm in diameter when the service entrance
does not require use of a service box or when the
installation requires placement of conduit between

Cable Facility
Sizing
(ENTRANCE)
The Rule of
thumb for an
Office
complex is 1
pair for every
10 sq. m of
usable floor
area

Service Box, Handhole and Manhole

box-shaped, reinforced concrete, underground

structures designed for terminating underground
conduits for the outdoor installation of entrance
cable.
Used where a maximum of two conduits shall be
terminated on any side. For a maximum
requirement of more than two conduits, the
appropriate type of manhole shall be used.

When to Use Handholes

1. For entrance cable not exceeding 50 pairs (0.65 mm

diameter)
2.For pull through or straight run entrance cable.

Size of Entrance Cable

25 200 pairs
300 pairs
400 600 pairs
900 1200 pairs

Size of Entrance
Conduit
(mm diameter)
50
65
75
* Minimum size of100
Entrance Conduit: 50 mm
diameter

* Minimum number of Entrance Conduits: Two

Main Terminal

A main terminal may be either placed in an indoor

type DP or a cross-connect point within the
building. It is a point where cable from the
telephone company and the in-building
distribution system are terminated.
MTTC Main Telephone Terminal Cabinet;
200 pairs and below
======================================
========
MDF - Main Distribution Frame; 300 pairs
and above

Main Terminal

1 MTTC shall be provide with a 20-mm thick

anti-termite pressure treated wooden
backboard.
Backboard Color
White
Yellow
Blue

Terminals to be
terminated
Entrance
House/riser
Other special services
(data, computer etc.)

Riser System

A riser system is defined as

the vertical and horizontal
distribution of telephone
communication lines
between two or more floors
or adjoining premises on
the same floor of a building
generally originating at or
near the cabinet up to the
Telephone terminal or
outlet.

Distribution System

Minimum size of cable to be used for floor

distribution shall be 0.50 mm diameter

Types of Distribution System

1. Under floor Duct (one to two
levels)
2. Cellular (metallic and
concrete)
3. Unlimited Access (raised
floor)
4. Ceiling
5. Conduct (Raceway)

PULSE MODULATION

AN
AL

PAM

PULSE MODULATION

PULSE MODULATION

PULSE MODULATION

SIGNAL

PAM

PWM

PPM

D
IG
IT
AL

PULSE MODULATION

PULSE MODULATION

Analog to Digital Conversion

1.Sampling
2.compression
3.Quantizing
4.Coding
5.Multiplexing
Digital to Analog Conversion
6.Demultiplexing
7.Decoding
8.Expanding
9.Filtering

PULSE MODULATION

Analog to Digital Conversion

A
A sample
sample frequency
frequency of
of 8000
8000 Hz
Hz has
has been
been
specified
specified internationally
internationally for
for the
the frequency
frequency band
band
(300
to
(300
to
reduce
reduce
3400
3400
the
the
Hz)
Hz)
effect
effect
used
used
of
ofin
noise
in
noise
telephone
telephone
in
in the
the systems.
systems.
the
the quantized
quantized values
values are
are converted
converted into
into binary
binary
-dividing
transmission,
dividing
transmission,
The
Thethe
the
telephone
telephone
amplitude
amplitude
the
the sampled
sampled
signal
signal
scale
scale
is
is
pulses
pulses
sampled
into
sampled
into steps.
steps.
are
are8000
applied
8000
applied
The
The to
to
codes;
several
codes; the
several
the
input
input
combination
combination
signals
signals are
are
of
ofcombined
combined
the
the presence
presence
for
for and
and
times
a
amplitude
times
a
amplitude
compressor,
compressor,
per
per second.
second.
of
of the
the
which
which
pulse
pulse
compresses
compresses
is
is expressed
expressed
the
theas
as
sampled
sampled
the
the step
step
absence
simultaneous
absence of
simultaneous
of unit
unit
transmission
transmission
pulses
pulses and
and are
are
along
along
made
made
aa single
single
into
into PCM
PCM
line.
line.
-closest
pulses
closest
pulses
Therefore,
Therefore,
relatively
to
relatively
to it.
it.
the
the
more
more
interval
interval
intensive
intensive
between
between
at
at larger
larger
22
signals.
signals.
consecutive
amplitudes
consecutivethan
amplitudes
samples
than
samples
at
at smaller
smaller
from
from the
the
ones.
ones.
same
same telephone
telephone
signal.
signal.
-Sampling
Sampling Interval:
Interval: 125
125 usec.
usec.

PULSE MODULATION

Digital to Analog Conversion

Demultiplexing

to
to reconstruct
reconstruct the
the original
original analog
analog signal,
signal, the
the
aexpands
the
expands
a technique
the
technique
received
received
the
thefor
for
decoded
pulse
decoded
pulse
recovering
recovering
train
train
PAM
PAM
is
is the
converted
pulse
the
converted
pulse
original
original
more
more
into
into
intensive
intensive
PAM
PAM
PAM
PAM pulse
pulse train
train is
is fed
fed through
through aa low
low pass
pass filter,
filter,
individual
pulses
at
individual
pulses
at
smaller
smaller
which
which
amplitudes
signals
amplitudes
signals
are
are just
just
from
from
the
the
than
than
the
the
same
same
income
at
income
at larger
larger
as
as those
those
multiplex
multiplex
after
after
which
which connects
connects the
the peaks
peaks of
of the
the PAM
PAM pulses,
pulses,
signal.
quantizing.
amplitudes.
signal.
quantizing.
amplitudes.
thus
thus an
an analog
analog signal
signal is
is obtained.
obtained.

PULSE MODULATION

1. The first number of the loaded cable designation

19H44 indicates
1.
2.
3.
4.

Spacing
Coil inductance
Wire gauge
Attenuation

2. The letter of the loaded cable designation 24B88

indicates
1. Spacing
2. Coil inductance
3. Wire gauge
4. Attenuation

3. The last two digits of the loaded cable designation

22E66 indicates
1.
2.
3.
4.

Spacing
Coil inductance
Wire gauge
Attenuation

4. The kind of telephone system that require the

incoming analog signals to be converted to PCM
words before being switched
1. Analog system
2. Digital system
3. Step-by-step
4. Crossbar system

5. A switching network capable of providing a path from

every inlet link to every outlet link in the absence of
traffic
1. Concentration
2. Blocking
3. Full availability switch
4. Crosspoint

6. The inability to interconnect two idle lines connected

to a switching network due to all possible paths are in
use
1. Concentration
2. Blocking
3. Full availability
4. Crosspoint

7. In the telephone industry, BORSCHT functions are

performed by
1. Subscriber line interface
2. Crosspoint matrix
3. Switching network
4. Connector switch

8. BORSCHT stands for

1. Battery, over-voltage protection, ringing,
supervision, coding, hybrid and testing
2. Battery, on-hook, regulator, surge protect, circuit,
hybrid and test
3. Name of a leading manufacturer of telephone
system
4. Acronym for the developers of computer

9. Sampling theorem states that the rate of sampling

must at least be _____ the highest frequency
component
1. Half
2. Twice
3. Equal
4. Ten times

10. Sampling theorem is also known as

1. Shannon
2. Nyquist
3. Norton
4. Thevenin

11. A process in which more than one signal at a time is

translated over a signal link, route or channel
1. Synchronization
2. Multiplexing
3. Concentration
4. Encoding

12. This type of equipment extends the center switching

capability through the use of sensitive relays.
1. Extenders
2. Dial long lines
3. Voice repeaters
4. All of the above

13. The modulation technique where signals are

sampled periodically and each sample is quantized
and transmitted as a digital binary code
1. TDM
2. PCM
3. PAM
4. PPM

14. What multiplexing technique is used in PCM?

1. TDM
2. PCM
3. PAM
4. PPM

15. When a modulation signal is periodically sampled, a

_____ wave is produced
1. TDM
2. PCM
3. PAM
4. PPM

16. What is the sampling rate used in PCM

1. 3.4 kHz
2. 4.0 kHz
3. 8.0 kHz
4. 64 kHz

17. The process of assigning discrete value to a PAM

signals in PCM
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Equalization
4. Multiplexing

18. Continuous one hour period which has the maximum

average traffic intensity
1. Busy hour
2. Traffic quantity
3. Grade of service
4. Erlang

19. The aggregate engagement time or occupancy time

of one or more traffic paths
1. Busy hour
2. Traffic quantity
3. Grade of service
4. Erlang

20. A measure of the probability that a call offered to a

group of trunks or circuits will fail to find idle circuit at
the first attempt
1. Busy hour
2. Traffic quantity
3. Grade of service
4. Erlang

21. Added to extend the transmission distance by

canceling the effect of cable capacitance in the line.
1. Extender
2. loading coil
3. T-line
4. -line

22. Digital Subscriber Lines can not be implemented

with loading coils for the reason that
1. loading coils are not compatible with DSL repeaters
2. loading coils attenuates signals beyond the voiceband
3. loading coils are heavy and tend to sag the line
4. loading coils are only good for short distances

23. A jack found in most homes that holds a single line

and interfaces a central offices outside line to the
subscribers telephone unit.
1. RJ 45
2. RJ10
3. RJ11
4. RJ101

24. The standard frequency bandwidth for voice

transmission
1. 300 Hz to 3400 Hz
2. 0 to 4 kHz
3. 100 Hz to 3.4 kHz
4. 300 Hz to 3000 Hz

25. How many connections, are needed to connect 50

subscribers directly?
1. 2500
2. 2450
3. 1225
4. 1250

26. It is the function of a switch or switching network

having more outlet than inlet.
1. Directing
2. Concentration
3. Expansion
4. connection

27. Unit of telephone traffic defined as one user making

a call of one second duration
1. CCs
2. Call sec
3. Call min
4. Erlang

28. Fiber in a loop means

1. The use of fiber in connecting LE with the
telephone set
2. The use of fiber optics as backbone of the
telephone network
3. The use of fiber as link between central offices
4. All of the above

29. What does a noise weighting curve shows?

1. Noise signals measured with 144 handset
2. Power level of noise found in carrier systems
3. The interfering effect of other frequencies in a noise
channel compared to a reference frequency
4. Interfering effect of noise signals to the channel
carrying information as compared with a 3 kHz tone.

30. Telephone line type of weighting used by CCIT

1. Psophometric weighting
2. C-message Weighting
3. F1A Weighting
4. Flat Weighting

31. The largest portion of the bandwidth of the

bandwidth for ADSL carries
1. Voice communication
2. Upstream data
3. Downstream data
4. Control data

32. Interference from one channel to the other.

1. Crosstalk
2. Jitter
3. Dc wandering
4. echo

33. The loss introduced in a telephone network to avoid

singing
1. Insertion loss
2. Trans line loss
3. Via net loss
4. Both a and c

34. A telephone signal takes 2.17 ms to reach its

destination. Calculate the via net loss required for an
acceptable amount of echo.
1. 0.651 dB
2. 6.51 dB
3. 0.834 dB
4. 8.34 dB

35. FDM telephony uses

1. DSB
2. DSBFC
3. SSBSC
4. SSBFC

36. Five user groups are used to form a

1. Channel
2. Supergroup
3. Mastergroup
4. spectrum

37. The number of voiceband channels in a master

group per CCITT standard is
1. 300
2. 480
3. 600
4. 120

38. The frequency of a standard FDM basic supergroup.

1. 30 kHz to 108 kHz
2. 60 kHz to 2540 kHz
3. 300 kHz to 600 kHz
4. 312 kHz to 552 kHz

39. To separate channels in an FDM receiver, it is

necessary to used
1. An AND gate
2. A bandpass filter
3. Differentiation
4. integration

40. What is the suppressed carrier frequency of channel

6 of a group?
1. 64 kHz
2. 80 khz
3. 84 kHz
4. 88 kHz

41. A digital signal is sampled every

1. 0.2 msec.
2. 100 sec.
3. 0.25 msec
4. 125 sec

42. The fastest T-carrier that can be accommodated

using twisted par.
1. T1
2. T2
3. T3
4. T4

43. 12 T1 is called
1. Special frame
2. Superframe
3. Extended superframe
4. T12

44. The process wherein the quantizer intervals are

varied or adjusted
1. Quantizing
2. Coding
3. Expanding
4. Companding

45. It is the companded PCM law used by Bell system.

1. A- Law
2. B-Law
3. law
4. All of the above

46. Also known as channel bank.

1. T1
2. E1
3. Group
4. Supergroup

47. How many voice band channels can be

accommodates by level 2 CEPT standard digital carrier?
1. 96
2. 120
3. 30
4. 480

48. Holding time

1. The number of times a route or traffic path is used per
unit tome period
2. The call intensity per traffic path during busy hour
3. The average duration of occupancy of one or more
paths by calls
4. Both a and b

49. Degree of congestion calculated statistically.

1. Grade of service
2. Traffic
3. Erlang
4. blockage

50. The statistics during the BH for a particular

exchange is 5 lost calls in 835 carrier traffic. What is the
GoS?
1. 0.010
2. 0.007
3. 0.006
4. 0.003

51. Traffic offered is always______ traffic carried.

1. Equal to
2. Less than
3. Greater than
4. None of the above

52. It is the average number of calls present during a

period of time.
1. Traffic quality
2. traffic
3. Calling rate
4. Traffic load

53. One( 1) Erlang is

1. 1000 TU
2. 10 TU
3. 100 TU
4. 1 TU

54. In a busy hour, the traffic carried of 4.52 Erlang was

recorded out of 200 calls. Find the mean holding time.
1. 81.36 sec.
2. 0.8136 sec
3. 2.26 sec.
4. 22.6 sec.

55. Optimal value of the operating current for a

satisfactory dial tone
1. 35 mA
2. 24 mA
3. 60 mA
4. 150mA

56. Typical loop loss in telephone system.

1. 10 dB
2. 8 dB
3. 6 dB
4. 4 dB

57. A continuous connection.

1. Attempt
2. Pegcount
3. Call
4. usage

58. Allow a conventional analog voice local loop and

high speed datalink. To be connected on one twisted
pair having different transmit and received bandwidth
from the subscriber.
1. DSL
2. ISDN
3. ADSL
4. B-ISDN

59. What is the frequency band does a typical ADSL

upstream uses?
1. 0 to 4 kHz
2. 20 kHz to 200 kHz
3. 250 kHz to 1000 kHz
4. 25 kHz to 200 kHz

60. Failure to connect a telephone call because of lack

of system capacity.
1. Call blocking
2. Dropped call
3. Hand-off
4. rerouting

61. Cordless telephones are linked by _____

transmitter- receiver system.
1. Low- power FM
2. High power FM
3. Low power AM
4. High power AM

62. A _____ standard has not been approved by an

organized body but has been adopted as a standard
through widespread use
a. De facto
b. De jure
c. De merit
d. De populi

63. ADSL divides the bandwidth of a ____cable into

three bands
1. Coaxial
2. Fiber optic
3. Twisted pair
4. Any of the above

64. The most common dial up service used by a person

making a home telephone call is
1. Analog switched service
2. Analog leased service
3. Switched /56 service
4. Digital data service

65. Time Division Multiplexing

1. Divides packets into audio cells to be placed on
the telephone lines
2. Assigns channels to different frequencies in the
transmission bandwidth
3. Assigns time slots to each channels packet
sections
4. Uses asynchronous data transmission

66. How many channels are used to make a group level

channel in FDM?
1. 1
2. 4
3. 8
4. 12

67. FDM uses______ to prevent modulated signals from

overlapping
1. Physical hardware devices
2. Carrier frequencies
3. Guard bands
4. demultiplexer

68. One of the key reasons FDM has replaced by TDM

is because
1. There is more time than frequency
2. It is difficult to place channels side by side
3. Noise is amplified with voice when an FDM
system is used
4. Most available frequencies have been used

69. The PCM sampling rate is 8000 samples per second

because
1. That represents the maximum rate that
technology supports
2. This rate allows unique values
3. This rate allows the faithful reconstruction of an
analog signal
4. This rate is easily produced by a sampling chip

70. A T-1 line can handle _____ multiplexed voice

channels.
1. 6
2. 12
3. 18
4. 24

71. What is the overhead in a T-1 line?

1. 4 bps
2. 8 bps
3. 16 bps
4. 24 bps

72. This form of DSL uses most of channel to transmit

downstream to user and only a small part to receive to
receive information from the user.
1. SDSL
2. ADSL
3. ISDN
4. Cable modem