Biomedical Science 2

Makassar, 1st November

2011

Ika Yustisia
Department of Biochemistry
Faculty of Medicine UNHAS

Introduction
General Principles of Digestion
Digestive Juices and Enzymes
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Protein Digestion and Amino Acid

Absorption

Liver and Bilirubin Metabolism

Digestion:
Mechanical digestion: breaking food in small

particles so they are easily broken down by

enzymes mouth and stomach
Chemical digestion: pancreas and
duodenum

Nutrient absorption: small intestine

Water reabsorption: colon

Koolman,
2004

The process of digestion is

characterized by several specific
stages
Interaction of fluid, pH, emulsifying agents,

and enzymes

This requires concerted actions of the

salivary glands, pancrease, gall
bladder, and liver

Lubrications and homogenizations

Secretion of enzymes
Secretion of electrolytes, hydrogen
ion, and bicarbonate
Secretion of the bile acids
Further hydrolysis of the oligomers
and dimers
Specific transport of digested
material

Major function of the gastrointestinal organs

in digestion and absorption
Organ

Primary function
Production of fluid and digestive enzymes for homogenization,
Salivary
lubrication, and digestion of carbohydrate (amylase) and lipid
glands
(lingual lipase)
Stomach
Secretion of HCl and proteases to initiate hydrolysis of proteins
Secretion of HCO3-, proteases, lipases, and amylase to
Pancrease
continue digestion of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate
respectively
Liver
Elaboration of bile acids
Gallblader
Storage and concentration of bile
Final intraluminal digestion of foodstuffs, digestion of
Small intestine carbohydrate dimers and specific absorptive pathway for
digested material
Absorption of fluid and electrolyte and products of bacterial
Large intestine
action in colon

The organs involved in digestion and

absorption has the capacity to increase its
activity several fold in response to specific
stimulation

Minor functional loss may unnoticed by the

individual, allowing the pathology to progress
for some time before being diagnosed

Approximately 30 g of digestive
enzymes are secreted per day
Exocrine gland

The salivary, gastric mucosa, pancrease

Contain specialized cell for synthesis, packaging, and
transport of the enzymes to the cell surface , and
thence to the intestinal lumen

All digestive enzymes hydrolyze their

substrates
The products of such hydrolytic
procedures are oligomers, dimers,
and monomers of parent
macromolecules

Koolman,
2004

Salivary enzymes
The main function of saliva is not the
digestion of nutrients but the conversion of
food into a homogeneous mass during
mastication

Amylases, Cystatins,
Histatins, Mucins,
Peroxidases

Carbonic anhydrases,
Histatins

AntiBacterial
Cystatins,
Mucins

Buffering
Amylases,
Mucins, Lipase

AntiViral

Digestion
Salivary
Proteins

Histatins

AntiFungal

Tissue
Coating
Amylases,
Cystatins, Mucins,
Proline-rich proteins, Statherins

Mineralization

Lubrication &Viscoelasticity

Cystatins,
Histatins, Prolinerich proteins,
Statherins

Mucins, Statherins
adaptedfromM.J.Levine,1993

Stomach
In the stomach the
food is mixed,
stored for some time
then finally discharge
into the duodenum

Gastrin
Distension of the stomach
Proteins and polypeptide
Vagal stimulation
Plasma calcium concentration

Stimulatin
g gastrin
secretion

Circulating catecholamines
Pepsinogen and intrinsic
factor
Increases gastric motility
Stimulates the growth of
gastric mucosa

Gastrin increases acid secretion and the acid then

feeds back to inhibit further gastrin secretion

Gastrin
Acid in the antrum
Blood-borne factors
(secretin, GIP, VIP,
glucagon, calcitonin)

Inhibiting
gastrin
secretion

Gastrointestinal hormones
Gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin,
pancreozimin, enterokrin belongs to the
group of gastrointestinal hormones
All of these are formed in the
gastrointestinal tract and mainly act in the
vicinity of the site where they are formed
i. e., they are paracrine hormones

Hormon-hormon penting dalam pengaturan

pencernaan usus halus:
Sekretin: merangsang kelenjar pankreas

mengeluarkan getah yang mengandung bikarbonat.

Pelepasan hormon ini distimulasi oleh HCl lambung
Kolesistokinin: merangsang kontraksi serta
pengosongan kandung empedu. Pelepasan hormon ini
distimulasi oleh lemak yang bersentuhan dengan
mukosa duodenum
Pankreozimin: merangsang kelenjar pankreas
mengeluarkan getah yang kaya enzim; distimulasi
oleh hasil-hasil pencernaan protein
Enterokrin: merangsang pengaliran getah intestin

Hormon-hormon di atas dihasilkan oleh

mukosa duodenum
(Hardjasasmita, 2004; Price, 1995)

Pancrease secretions

Pancrease secretions

Small intestine enzymes

The glands of the small intestine (the
Lieberkhn and Brunner glands), the
microvilli of the intestinal epithelium
secrete additional digestive enzymes
that ensure almost complete
hydrolysis of the food components
previously broken down by the
endoenzymes

Zymogens
Some digestive enzymes are potentially so
damaging to the cells that synthesizes them
that they are secreted as inactive precursors
Among the digestive enzymes, the proteases
and phospholipases are dangerous
Once secreted, these zymogens are converted
into their active forms. This activation
process is irreversible

H+

Pepsinogen

Trypsinogen

Chymotrypsinogen

Proelastase

Procarboxypeptidase
carboxypeptidase

pepsin

enteropeptidase

tripsin

tripsin
chymotrypsin

elastase

tripsin

tripsin

Overview of
carbohydrate
digestion. Digestion of
the carbohydrates
occurs first, followed
by absorption of
monosaccharides.
Subsequent metabolic
reactions occur after
the sugars are
absorbed
Lieberman, 2009

Action of salivary and

pancreatic -amylases
Lieberman,
2009

Metabolism of Sugars by Colonic Bacteria

Some indigestible
carbohydrates.
These compounds
are components of
dietary fiber
Lieberman, 2009

Digestion of
triacylglycerols in the
intestinal lumen
TG, triacylglycerol; bs, bile
salts; FA, fatty acid; 2-MG,
2-monoacylglycerol.
Lieberman, 2009

2
1. Action of pancreatic lipase. Fatty acids (FA) are cleaved
from positions 1 and 3 of the triacylglycerol, and a
monoacylglycerol with a fatty acid at position 2 is
produced
2. Action of pancreatic esterases (A) and phospholipase A2
(B)

Absorption of Food Lipids

Digestion of proteins
The proteolytic enzymes,
pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin,
elastase, and the
carboxypeptidases, are
produced as zymogens (the
[pro] and [ogen], in red,
accompanying the enzyme
name) that are activated by
cleavage after they enter the
gastrointestinal lumen
Lieberman, 2009

Action of the digestive proteases

Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
elastase are endopeptidases; they
hydrolyze peptide bonds within chains.
The others are exopeptidases;
aminopeptidases remove the amino
acid at the N-terminus and the
carboxypeptidases remove the amino
acid at the C-terminus. For each
proteolytic enzyme, the amino acid
residues involved in the peptide bond
that is cleaved are listed beside the R
group to the right of the enzyme name.
Lieberman, 2009

Absorption of Peptides and Amino

Acids

Sodium: active absorption in jejunum-ileum. Chloride follow by

electromagnetic attraction.

Potassium: passive secretion or absorption, depending on lumenal

concentration if diarrhea, hypokalemia due to loss of K+

HCO3-: secreted by pancreas, neutralizes H+ from stomach. Used

as a buffer

Calcium: need an active transport to cross the intestinal

epithelium. Absorption promoted by a derivative of Vitamin D

Iron: actively reabsorbed. Stored as ferritin

Water: two liters of fluids are taken as food or drink per day. In
addition, 7 liters are used to secrete digestive juices need to
reabsorb most of H2O.

H2O reabsorbed throughout the small and large intestines. Colon

is especially designed to reabsorb H2O.

Colonic bacteria produce some gases

such as: CO2, methane, hydrogen,
nitrogen, H2S
Lecithin will be decomposed into
choline & neurin

Some amino acids that will be

decarboxylated in putrefaction process:
Lysin
Kadaverin
Arginine Agmatin.
Tyrosine Tyramin.
Ornithine Putressin.
Histidine Histamin.
These amino acids have strong vasomotor
effect
Tryptopan Indol + Methyl Indol (Skatol)
giving specific scent to the faeces

Nitrogen diubah menjadi Amonia ke

hati sekresi portal shg pada penyakit
sirosis hepatik dan Ca.amonia
meninggi dalam darah perifer Toksik
Koma Hepatik; Zat Neomycin peroral
bisa mengurangi kadar amonia darah.

(Koolman,
2004)

(Koolman,
2004)

Bile acids and bile salts

Bile is an important product released by
the hepatocytes
It promotes the digestion of fats from food
by emulsifying them in the small intestine
The emulsifying components of bile, apart
from phospholipids, mainly consist of bile
acids and bile salts
The bile also contains free cholesterol,
which is excreted in this way

Heme Protein

Cholesterol
Cholic acid,
chenodeoxycholic
acid (Bile acids)

Biliverdin,
bilirubin
(Bile pigment)

BILE

(Koolman,
2004)

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