Perception and

Design
Introduction
 Communication skills are crucial to every
professional
 Verbal skills are not enough when presenting
geographic information
 Graphic skills are needed for mapmaking
 Cartographic expertise allows you to communicate
geographic information clearly with maps
 Designing better maps means thinking carefully about
each aspect of the map design process

Perception and Design 2

 Designing maps for specific display media
and building polished layout with visual
emphasis on key elements will ensure your
audience can read the map and understand
your message

Perception and Design 3

Perception and
Design
 Cartographic design
 Symbolization
 Colour theory and models
 Patterns
 Typography and lettering the map

Perception and Design 4

Cartographic
Design
 Design is creation.
 Objectives of map design.
 General reference map.
 Thematic map.
 Functional design.
 There are almost unlimited options for organising
the visual character of the display.
 Most design choices are compromises.

Perception and Design 5

Design Process
(Robinson)

 Draw heavily on imagination and creativity -

graphic ideation
 Develop a specific graphic plan by analysing
various alternatives and weigh them within the
limits of the general plan
 Prepare detailed specifications for map
construction
 Design prototypes

Perception and Design 6

Visualization
Process

Perception and Design 7

 Map Design Process

Real data Raw map map Map

World collection Data production Map reading Image
and
Purpose

Design Process

Perception and Design 8

Map Design -cont..
Consider what the real world distribution of the
Step 1
phenomenon might look like

Determine the purpose of the map and its

Step 2
intended audience

Step 3 Collect data appropriate for the map's purpose

Step 4 Design and construct the map

Determine whether users find the map useful

Step 5
and informative

Perception and Design 9

Design &Construct
Process (Slocum)

forces the designer to construct a map with a particular focus & purpose
directs the reader's attention to a particular message
combines intellectual and aesthetic processes
Perception and Design 10
Design &Construct
Process -Design
Filters

Perception and Design 11

Map Design -cont..
 Determine how the map will be reproduced
 Select a scale and map projection that is appropriate for the map’s theme
 Determine the most appropriate methods for data symbolization and classification
 Select which map elements to employ and decide how each will be implemented
 Establish a ranking of symbols and map elements according to their relative
importance
 Create one or more sketch map or thumbnail sketch
 Construct the map in your chosen software application. Print rough drafts first..
then refine the map design
 If possible, allow members of intended audience to evaluate the map’s
effectiveness

Perception and Design 12

Essentials 0f
designing better
maps (C. Brewer)
 Designing for map purpose and medium, consider
audience, media resolution, viewing distance, colour
quality
 Linking layout to map purpose, using hierarchy,
editing decorative design elements, select map
projections
 Planning layout, refine alignments, value
experimentation
 Choosing appropriate export options, maps for the
web

Perception and Design 13

Criteria for a Good
Design
 Should be suited to the needs of map users
 Should be easy to use
 Should be accurate, present information without error
and distortion
 Should be clear, legible, and aesthetically pleasing
 Should be thought –provoking, and communicative
 Beauty : beauty of symbols, beauty of colour, beauty
of layout, beauty of typographic appearance

Perception and Design 14

Perceptual
Considerations
 Graphic elements
 Point marks - position
 Line marks - direction and position: a linear array
of points
 Area marks - extent, direction and position: a 2-
dimensional array of points

Perception and Design 15

 Graphic elements
Representation of Spatial Objects
 Point (0-dimensionality)
• Occurs at only one location in space.
• No length or width.
• Stored as a single coordinate pair
 Line (1-dimensionality)
• Objects have a fundamentally long and skinny shape.
• Store the line as an ordered sequence of points.
 Area/polygon (2-dimensionality)
• Areas occupy both length and width.

Perception and Design 16

Levels of Geographic
Data Measurements
 Nominal scale
• The simplest level of measurement.
• Qualitative information that divides a group into
different categories or classes.
• Cannot perform any mathematical operation between
classes.
 Ordinal scale
• Quantitative information classified on the basis of
comparative values
• Objects can be compared in terms of “greater than”,
“equal”, or “less than”
• No way to determining how much distance separates
the adjacent items in the array.

Perception and Design 17

 Levels of Geographic
Data Measurements
 Interval scale
• Provides the exact value of some phenomena on a standard
scale with uniform intervals but an arbitrary zero value.
 Ratio scale
• Quantitative information that provides the exact value of some
phenomena on a standard scale that has uniform intervals
and a real (non-arbitrary) zero value.
 Conversion between different scales
• As one progress from nominal to ratio scaling, the amount of
information obtainable increases.
• Data available at higher measurement levels can be
generalized to lower levels, but the reverse is not possible.
• Permissible mathematical and statistical operations on
measurements of different scale are different

Perception and Design 18

Classes of Symbols
 Point-emphasising symbols
 Line-emphasising symbols
 Area-emphasising symbols
 Volume-emphasising symbols

Perception and Design 19

Classes
of
Symbols
(Cont.)

Some examples of
the four classes of
symbols (point-,
line-, area-, and
volume-
emphasising) and
how they might be
used for a few of the
kinds of qualitative
and quantitative
data.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 20

Spatial data –
temporal dimension
 Identifies the time period for which
measurements are valid
 3 basic temporal cartographic models
 Static maps
shows single slice of time
snapshot taken at particular instant of time
uses graphic variables and symbols to show
temporal change

Perception and Design 21

Cont..
 Series of static maps
is a series of snapshots of the same area and
the same phenomenon at different points in
time
 Animated map
result of connecting the snapshots maps into
animation
moving objects - movements is animated on
the screen

Perception and Design 22

Perception and Design 23
Visual Variables-
Bertin
 visual variables
 Shape
 Size
 Orientation
 Colour -Hue ,Value, Chroma
 Value
 Texture (pattern)

Perception and Design 24

 Visual Variables

The visual
variables with
some examples
of their simple
application to the
classes of
symbols.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 25

 Visual Variables(cont)

The visual variables with some examples of their simple application

to the basic graphic elements.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 26

Visual
Variables(cont)

Perception and Design 27

Multivariate

Perception and Design 28

Example

Perception and Design 29

Dent –visual
representation

Perception and Design 30

Slocum-Visual
Variables

Perception and Design 31

Slocum-Visual
Variables Colour

Perception and Design 32

Visual Perception
(Bertin)
 Perception of and the immediate discriminatory response / spontaneous impression to
an object which is presented to the viewer.

 If all symbols look of equal importance , the perception

characteristics of the visual variable applied is called
ASSOCIATIVE
 If groups of symbols can easily be distinguished, the perception
characteristics of the visual variable is called SELECTIVE
 If any order between symbols can be distinguished, the perception
characteristics of the visual variable applied is called ORDERED
 If any order in terms of amounts can be distinguished, the perception
characteristics of the visual variable is called QUANTITATIVE

Perception and Design 33

Subjective and
Conventional
associations
 Spontaneous reactions  Learned and based on
to a specific v/v which custom and agreement
are more or less  Eg on topographic map
common to all users Colour, value,size
 Form, Orientation,
Colour,Value,
Texture,Size

Perception and Design 34

Visual Perception-
Examples

Associative Selective

Ordered Quantitative

Perception and Design 35

Examples of
Thematic Maps
 A map is a two-dimensional scale model of a part of
the surface of the earth.
 Common thematic maps.
 Choropleth maps show relative magnitudes of continuous
variables as they occur within the boundaries of unit areas.
 Contour/Isarithmic maps represent quantities by lines of
equal value and emphasise gradients among the values.

Perception and Design 36

Choropleth Maps

Perception and Design 37

Contour/Isarithmic
Maps

Perception and Design 38

Other Kinds of
Maps
 Dot maps (e.g. Population)
 Symbol maps (e.g. Labour force)
 Line maps (e.g. Transport)
 3-dimensional maps (e.g. Landform)
 Animation maps (e.g. Weather)

Perception and Design 39

 Dot
Maps

Perception and Design 40

Symbol Maps

Perception and Design 41

Line
Maps

Perception and Design 42

Animation Maps

Perception and Design 43

Animation Maps (Cont.)

Perception and Design 44

 Other Graphics
Output 1
00
90 1
974
80
1
984

Bar chart
70

 6
5
4
0
0
0
1
994

30
20

 Pie chart 10
0
0 5
0 1
00

 Scatter plot
1
00 1
974
 Histogram 5
0
1
984
1
994

0
Urb
an
1994
Rural
21% Urban
39%
Sub-
urban 140
40% 120 B
and5

100
80
60
40
20
0

Perception and Design 45

Design Principles
 Legibility - graphic symbols must be easy to read and
understand
 e.g. Size
 Visual contrast
 Figure-ground organisation
 Differentiation, closed forms, familiarity, lightness, good
contour, detail, and size
 Hierarchical organisation - visual layering
 stereogrammic, extensional and subdivisional

Perception and Design 46

Legibility
 Graphic symbols must be easy to read and
understand
 Differences between colours, pattern, and
shadings used to differentiate between symbols
must be visually distinct
 Symbols should be larger than minimum size for
average vision and viewing conditions
 Focus of attention : attempt to get important part
in visual center

Perception and Design 47

Legibility
 Threshold of perception
 Threshold of separation
 Threshold of differentiation

Perception and Design 48

Perception and Design 49
 Legibility
Viewing distance Size
(m) (width, mm)
0.5 0.3
2 1.15
5 2.9
10 5.8
Approximate minimum 15 8.7
sizes for legibility of
point symbols. 20 11.6
25 14.5
After Robinson, et al., 1995

30 17.4
Perception and Design 50
Visual Contrast
 contrast --> perceptual differentiation ;a sign contrast
with its background and adjacent signs. This determines
how crisp, clean and sharp a map looks
 critical to distinguishing important pieces of information
- IMPORTANT
 achieved through:
 line - character ,weight
 texture
 value - human limitation in number of different values
that can be perceived
 detail
 color

Perception and Design 51

 Visual Contrast

Size contrast of lines.

Uniformity produces
unpleasant monotony. The
areas that are most
“interesting” are those
with with considerable
contrast.
After Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 52

 Figure-ground
Organisation
 establish figure - ground
 figure = object of importance - to be remembered
 ground = background - less distinct,not to be remembered
 techniques to make figure stand out
 grouping - multiple smaller items appear 'on top'
 closure - objects are 'complete'
 texture - heterogeneous visual display - perceive difference
 crisp edges - sharpness & intensity will pull object forward
 interposition - interrupt the plane of one object with another
 map frame - use frame to extend object boundaries
 vignetting / gradience - to distinguish land from water, to
recognize outlines of towns, islands and harbors

Perception and Design 53

Figure-ground
Organisation

Four simple sketch maps to illustrate various aspects of

the figure-ground relationship.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Perception and Design 54
Hierarchical
Organisation
 visual layering of mapped features
 separate meaningful characteristics and to show
likeness, differences and interrelationships
 visual order defines the place and function of each
element of the whole
 implies an underlying structure rather than randomness
 techniques :through stereogrammic, extensional and
subdivisional

Perception and Design 55

 Hierarchical
Organisation

An example of stereogrammic hierarchical graphic

organisation: (A): all elements lie in the same visual plane; (B):
the land seems to be above the water, and mordern boundaries
rise above the visual plane of the land.
Perception and Design From Robinson, et al., 1995 56
 Stereogrammic
Organisation
Some examples of
depth cues that may
be useful in
stereogrammic
organisation. (A), (B),
(C) and (D) illustrate
various kinds of
superimposition. (E)
illustrates a
progression of size,
and (F) illustrates a
progression of value.
(G) depth cues may be
used additively.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 57

 Extensional
Organisation
An example of
extensional
hierarchical
graphic
organisation in
which a set of
roads is graded
according to
relative
importance.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 58

Sub-
divisional
Organisati
onAn example of sub-
divisional
hierarchical
organisation in which
the primary division
is between humid
and dry climates,
with a secondary
sub-division based
on temperature, and
a tertiary sub-
division based on
desert versus steppe.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 59

Graphic controls
 Purpose
 Audience
 Format
 Reality
 Technical limits

Perception and Design 60

Design Planning-
Layout
 The graphic outline
 Composition
 Visual balance
 Contextual items
 Titles
 Legends
 Insets

Perception and Design 61

 The Graphic Outline
The fundamental
organisational elements:
1.The place – Europe.
2.The features – the two
distributions.
3.The position of the
features with respect to
Europe.
4.The relative position of
the two distributions.
(A): 1-2-3-4, (B): 2-3-4-1, (C):
3-1-4-2, (D): 4-2-3-1.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 62

 Composition

Explanatory aids such as titles, legends, scales, insets and

direction indicators are also standard components of map
composition. They may be arranged in various ways in the
graphic organisation of a map.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 63

 Visual Balance

Visual
centre

Actual
centre

Left: The visual as opposed to the actual centre of a rectangle.

Balancing is accomplished around the visual centre.
Right: Visual balance. (A), (B), (C) and (D) show different degrees of
balance. (A) and (B) are analogous to a child and an adult on a
seesaw. (C) and (D) introduce relative density or visual weight,
darker masses being heavier.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Perception and Design 64
 Perception of Balance

Which one?

Which one?

Which one?

Which one?
Which one?
Which one?

Which one?

Which one?

Which one?

Perception and Design 65

Perception of Balance

off center = more weight

upper = more weight

right = more weight

bigger = more weight

red = more weight

bright = more weight

isolated = more weight

regular shape = more

weight

Perception and Design 66

Visual Rules

Perception and Design 67

Map Composition and
Layout
 Layout refers to the spatial arrangement of the various
map elements making together what is called the map.
 Goals of map layout
 Clarity
 Order
 Visual balance
 Contrast
 Unity

Perception and Design 68

Map Layout-
preconditions
 The process of map layout can only start after it is
clear:
What the purpose of the map is
Who is the map user
What is the topic of the map
What the scale and the format is
How the map will be reproduced

Perception and Design 69

Layout (cont)
 Beauty of layout
 Arrange and organize map elements into meaningful,
aesthetically pleasing layout
 The position size, and style of all map elements,
including titles, legends, scale, graticule, neatlines,
symbols and place names, credits can be arranged and
customized in various ways in a map
 Importance of experimental studies

Perception and Design 70

 Map layout
 for presentation maps, some conventions on what to
include:
 a title (or caption). clearly state what the map shows. plus relevant
date of data, sources, missing values, author, contact info, etc
 a legend, so any reader can interpret the content of the map.
meaning of all symbol and colours
 scale indication. translates distance on the map to distance on the
ground
 orientation indication (the good old north arrow)
 borders and neatlines
 these conventions are widely broken!

Perception and Design 71

Main map layout
elements
 Map face
 Neat lines
 Outer border
 Border information
 North indicator
 Marginal information
 Title
 Legend
 Location diagram
 Sheet history /Source
 Insets

Perception and Design 72

 Balance and centre
 Visual impact of arrangement.
harmonious arrangement around
the optical centre
 concern for weight and direction of
objects around the ‘natural’ centre
 unbalanced composition look optical centre

random and accidental geometric centre

Perception and Design 73

Golden proportions

1
Perception and Design 1.618 74
Interesting balance

Perception and Design 75

 Sketches of a Map

Preliminary sketches of a map made in order to arrive at a

desirable layout and balance.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 76

 Contextual Items

Examples of variations in the prominence of map legends. Note the

operation of the principles of figure-ground relationships.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 77

Map Insets
 is a smaller map which
show the primary mapped area in relation to a larger area
enlarges important or congested areas
adds information relative to theme (topic, year...)
 style
size and position is variable depending on importance of the
inset to the communication of map purpose

Perception and Design 78

 Types of Layout

Bleeding edge Layout

Frame Layout
Island Map Layout

Bleeding edge Layout

Frame Layout

Perception and Design 79

Balance

Symmetric balance

Formal grid balance

Informal balance

Perception and Design 80

 Balanced Layout
-Examples
“Careless” layout

“Searching all over for marginal information “

Perception and Design 81

Colour
 Functions
 simplifies or clarifies the organization /
message of the map
 makes information more legible and clear
e.g. text
 creates a subjective reaction /adds visual
interest
 Aesthetic

Perception and Design 82

Colour
 “Light”, or different colours, is a narrow
frequency band within the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 Visible colours are electromagnetic wave with
the wavelength of approximately 700nm (red)
to 400nm (violet).

Perception and Design 83

 Electromagnetic
Spectrum

e
e

r
r

et
et

tim
im

e
r
et
ill

n
ce
m

m
10-3 10-2 10-1 1 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 nm

INVISIBLE INVISIBLE
Gamma and X-rays Infrared Radio – Microwave - Television

400 500 600 700 nm

UV VISIBLE LIGHT Infrared

Perception and Design 84

 Rods and cones are specialized nerve cells that contain light-sensitive
chemicals called visual pigments, which generate an electrical
responses to light. (Slocum, et. al, p.182)

Perception and Design 85

Colour Theory and
Models
 Using colour on maps is one of the most interesting
and challenging aspects of cartography.
 Colour is a perceptual phenomenon, a product of our
mental processing of electromagnetic radiation
detected by our eyes.
 colour perception is a combination of physiological
(sensing in the eye and cognitive processing) and
psychological reactions
 A colour is measured by its hue, brightness (value)
and saturation (chroma).

Perception and Design 86

Dimensions of
Colour
 Hue
 Unique wavelength in colour spectrum (400-700nm)
 Name given to colours: red,green blue…
 Value (Brigthness,Lightness-Darkness)
 The quantity of lightness or darkness
 Value is controlled by adding white or black pigment
 Saturation (Chroma)
 Brilliance,richmess of a colour
 Chroma varies from 0% (gray) to 100(saturated, pure colour, no
gray); amount of pigment vs amount of gray

Perception and Design 87

 hue - basic colour we
perceive, eg 12 step
wheel

value - lightness or
darkness. Can be hard
to perceive variations
in value

saturation - intensity or
purity compared to a
neutral gray

Perception and Design 88

 Components of a
Colour
Dominant
wavelength (hue)
P(λ ) energy density

e2

Area → brightness

e1

400 Wavelength (nm) 700 λ

Violet Red

Perception and Design 89

Components of a
Colour

Perception and Design 90

 What are some of the color
conventions associated with
cartography?
 Many of these conventions are the result of widely-used USGS
practices (in the US at least)
 Blue is used to show water features: rivers, springs, lakes, playas,
oceans, reservoirs, canals.
 Green is used to represent vegetation (both natural and human-
maintained): forests, marshes, scrublands, orchards, vineyards.
 Brown is often used to show topography or terrain.
 Black is used to show human artifacts such as individual buildings,
including schools, churches, cemeteries, homes, out buildings,
railroads, pipelines, power lines, oil wells, and water tanks.
 Red is also used to show many larger human artifacts, such as
highways, roads, townships, and urban built-up areas on relatively
smaller scale maps where it wouldn't make sense to show every
building.
 Purple is used by the USGS to show the same things that would
normally be shown in red when they revise a map, in order to
highlight changes since the last time they revised it.

Perception and Design 91

Color Symbolism by
Culture
Color Cultural Significance
Red China - symbol of celebration and luck, used in many cultural ceremonies that
range from funerals to weddings.
India - color of purity (used in wedding outfits).
United States - Christmas color when combined with green, Valentines
Day when combined with pink, indicates stop (danger) at traffic lights.
Eastern cultures - signifies joy when combined with white.

Yellow Asia - sacred, imperial.

Western cultures - joy, happiness.

Blue China - associated with immortality.

Colombia - associated with soap.
Hindus - the color of Krishna.
Jews - holiness.
Middle East - protective color.
* Note: Blue is often considered to be the safest global color.

Orange Ireland - religious significance (Protestant).

United States - inexpensive goods, Halloween (with black).

Green China - studies indicate this is not a good color choice for packaging, green
hats mean a man's wife is cheating on him.
France - studies indicate this is not a good color choice for packaging.
India - the color of Islam.
Ireland - religious significance (Catholic).
Some tropical countries - associated with danger
United States - indicates go (safe) at traffic lights, environmental
awareness, St. Patrick's Day, Christmas color (red and green).
Perception and Design 92
 Purple Western cultures - royalty.

Brown Colombia - discourages sales.

White Eastern cultures - mourning, death.

Japan - white carnations signify death.
United States - purity (used in weddings).

Black Western cultures - mourning, death.

Saffron Hindu - sacred color. (orangish peach color)

Pastels Korea - trust.

United States - spring, Easter; pale blue (baby blue) stands for
an infant boy; pale pink stands for an infant girl.

Perception and Design 93

Perceptual and
Psychological
Factors influencing
colour

choice
With decreasing size the symbol of hue differences
becomes less clear
 With increasing areas, the apparent saturation of specific
hue also increases, therefore perception of the hue
 The eyes is more sensitive for small value changes as
compared to small hue changes
 Contrast between two adjacent object – two almost
similar hues close to each other may be easily
distinguishable as when they are separated from each
other

Perception and Design 94

Perceptual and
Psychological
Factors influencing
colour choice -cont
 Contrast enhancement is depending upon the
background. A light clolour may appear more clear or
bright against a dark background and will look darker
if against a light background
 Specific hues are related to human associations eg.
Red = warm, Blue=Cool
 Visual Perception of V/variable:

Hue-Associative, Selective, Value-Selective, Ordered

Perception and Design 95

What are color
models?
 Color models are different ways to organize and interrelate the
three dimensions of color
 Munsell (1915): A system originally developed for government
color coding, it works well for cartography because the three
dimensions of color (above) are divided into equally spaced
steps from a perceptual standpoint.
 Ostwald (1917): Similar to Munsell but colors are achieved by
manipulation of hue, white and black rather than hue, value
and saturation.
 CIE (1931): The Commission International de l’Eclairage
(International Commission on Illumination) system; allows
precise color specification in numerical terms.
 CMY(K) - subtractive primaries (color laser/inkjet printing on
hardcopy)
 RGB Cube: A more recent model of additive primaries
(graphics card for color monitor)

Perception and Design 96

The Additive Colour
System

Perception and Design 97

Additive &
Subtractive Colour
Mixture

Perception and Design 98

Munsell Model:Munsell model is
asymmetrical, because the model is
perceptually based .

Perception and Design 99

 The RGB Colour
Model
Most applicable to the colour generated by computer display devices
 Based on Additive mixture of three primary colour : red, green, blue
Each hue is specified in terms of intensities of red, green and blue. At the
corners of RGB colour cube are
 Red + Green…..Yellow
 Red + Blue….Magenta
 Green+ Blue…Cyan
 Red + Green+ Blue…White
 None…Black
 Equal amounts of RGB give grays along a scale from black (0,0,0 for
RGB) to white (255,255,255 for RGB). The line joining the black and white
points in colour space is the neutral or gray axis
 The combination of 256x256x256 creates 16,777,216 possible colours on
the computer display

Perception and Design 100

 The RGB Colour
Model
Blue = (0, 0, 1) Cyan = (0, 1, 1)

White = (1, 1, 1)
Magenta = (1, 0, 1)

Black = (0, 0, 0) Green = (0, 1, 0)

Red = (1, 0, 0) Yellow = (1, 1, 0)

Perception and Design 101

  
CYMK Color Model
 Subtractive colour combination of, Cyan , Yellow, Magenta, and Black
 Process colour printing uses transparent inks (pigments) : Cyan ,
Yellow, Magenta which together can create any hue in a continuous –tone
colour image. CYM are the Subtractive primary colours. Magenta
subtracts (absorbs) the blues and greens and transmits red light
 Theoretically mixing magenta, cyan and yellow should produce black, but
it results in dark muddy brown in practice. Thus Black is usually used to
overcome the limitation
 Colour printers or plotters use this model to produce colour images,
known as four-colour process printing. Colour produced by printing is not
based on additive primaries of projective light, but on ink pigment laid
down on paper

Perception and Design 102

The Subtractive
Colour System
B G R Y+C = G

Yellow

cyan

paper
Example: Paper reflects whatever light
reaches it, in this case green

Perception and Design 103

CMYK Model:
subtractive colors. 
(K: Black)
 (For printing)

Perception and Design 104

 Saturated color - pure color hue, undiluted
by other colors, white or gray, i.e. the
primary colors, red, yellow and blue are
saturated colors.

 To desaturate a color in a subtractive system

(such as watercolor), you can add white, black
, gray, or the hue's complement

Perception and Design 105

The CMY Colour
Model

The Relation
between RGB
and CMY
Yellow + Cyan = Green
Yellow + Magenta = Red
Cyan + Magenta = Blue

Perception and Design 106

The HSI Colour
Model
 Colour (hue).
 Purity (saturation).
 Brightness (intensity).
 The HSI coordinates are derived using the
RGB colour cube with axes redefined
according to the shade of colour, the purity of
colour and the brightness of colour.

Perception and Design 107

The HSI Colour
Model (Cont.)

Perception and Design 108

 HSV Colour Model
HSV System -
User-oriented
system, being
based on the
intuitive appeal of
the artist’s tint,
shade and tone.

Perception and Design 109

 HLS Colour Model
HLS System - is
defined in the
double-hexcone
subset of a
cylindrical space.

Perception and Design 110

Colour Conventions for
Qualitative Maps
 On nominal data classes : use different hues of same
value
 Maximum number of hues is often limited between 8
to 15
 Blue for water- learned association
 Red with warm and blue with cool temperature for
climatic and ocean representations
 Yellow on tans for dry and little vegetation
 Brown for soil or bare ground
 Green for vegetation

Perception and Design 111

Qualitative
mapping

Perception and Design 112

Colour Convention for
Quantitative maps

 The quantitative colour plan is based on graded series

of colours to show varying amounts
 Either colour value (lightness) or chroma differences
correspond with numerical gradations in the mapped
variable
 A number of colour schemes can be used for
quantitative maps, namely the schemes to use
dimensions of hue, value and chroma to symbolize
varying amounts of data on the map

Perception and Design 113

Quantitative
mapping

Perception and Design 114

Patterns
 Commonly used as a qualitative area symbol
for depicting area features.
 Also used to add graphic distinctiveness to
uniformly coloured areas, especially on maps
with a large number of classes.

Perception and Design 115

Categories of
Patterns
 Coarse line patterns
 Dot patterns
 Pictographic patterns
 Reversed patterns

Perception and Design 116

 Categories of
Patterns

An assortment
of common line,
dot,
pictographic,
and reversed
patterns.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 117

 Use of Patterns

A simple monochrome map contrasting the use of parallel line

and dot patterns. Line patterns are perceptually unstable, and
all but the finest textures should be used with caution.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 118

Typography and
Lettering the Map
 Serves to mainly to name places and to
identify or label things, to provide titles,
legends and other elements
 Letterforms, characteristics, size, letter
spacing, word spacing, typefaces, and
legibility are important aspects of lettering

Perception and Design 119

 Typography and
Lettering the Map
 Elements of typographic design
 Type style (typeface)
 Type form (style)
 Type size - measured by points (1 point = 1/72” ≈
0.35mm)
 Type colour
 Lettering the map
 Positioning

Perception and Design 120

 History of Map
Lettering

A portion of one of the maps in Sir Robert Dudley’s atlas, Dellá

Arcano del Mare (1646-1647).
Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design 121

 Type Style
Normal Italic Bold Bold Italic

Times Roman Times Roman Times Roman Times Roman

Helvetica Helvetica Helvetica Helvetica

Courier Courier Courier Courier

Bookman Bookman Bookman Bookman

Century Gothic Century Gothic Century Gothic Century Gothic

Comic Sans Comic Sans Comic Sans Comic Sans

Sans Serif Sans Serif Sans Serif Sans Serif

Perception and Design 122

 Type Form
Arial Arial Black

Arial Italic Arial Black Italic

Arial Bold Arial Narrow

Arial Bold Italic Arial Narrow Italic

Arial Narrow
Bold
Arial Narrow Bold
Italic

Perception and Design 123

Serif vs San serif
S vs s
World Arial = san serif
World Times New Roman = serif
World Bookman old style = serif
World Century Gothic = san serif

Perception and Design 124

Spacing

Perception and Design 125

General rules of
Positioning of text
 There should not be any ambiguity as to
which feature a name refers
 Name of the feature should be positioned
within the “open graphic space” surrounding
the feature
 Names of point features should be parallel to
the lines of latitude ( or parallel to the frame
of the map)

Perception and Design 126

Positioning of text

 Point feature labels

 Point feature that require fixed text positions eg. Benchmarks,spot
heights
 Point feature with relative freedom of text positioning
 Point symbols should be labeled with no letter spacing
 The most preferred position on lettering is above and to the right of the
place
 Name should be either entirely on land or on water
 Lettering should never be upside down
 Alignment of point features:
 alignment parallel to the parallels or to the neatlines of the map
 horizontal alignment a combination of horizontal and fixed alignment
along curved paths

Perception and Design 127

Positioning of text
-Point feature

Perception and Design 128

Positioning of text

 Linear feature labels

 In principle, the orientation of a name for line
feature should be in line with the feature
 Linear feature should be labeled with no letter
spacing, and repeated many times along the
features
 Ideal position is above and oriented parallel to the
feature

Perception and Design 129

Positioning of text
- linear feature

Perception and Design 130

Positioning of text
 Areal features label
 Example of features such as oceans, lakes, mountain
ranges, districts, countries
 Name of the feature should give a good impression of the
extent and character of the area
 In general, names representing administrative features
should be placed horizontal, while names representing
natural features can follow the natural extension of the
area, even along curved lines
 Names should be placed in the optical center of the area
and cover approx. 2/3 of the area.

Perception and Design 131

Positioning of text
-Areal feature

Perception and Design 132

Order of Name
Placement
 Order of Name Placement
 Spotheights,benchmarks,trig. Points etc
 Names of other point symbols (from small to big)
 Names of natural line symbols
 Names of natural area symbols (from small to big)
 Names of administrative areas (from small to big)
 Contour numbers and non-toponomic text

Perception and Design 133

 Lettering the Map

Comparison between inappropriately positioning type (left) and

good design practice (right).
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Perception and Design 134
A good
cartographer…?
 Quotes
"The good cartographer is both a scientist and an
artist. He must have a thorough knowledge of his
subject and model, the Earth.... He must have the
ability to generalize intelligently and to make a
right selection of the features to show. These are
represented by means of lines or colors; and the
effective use of lines or colors requires more than
knowledge of the subject - it requires artistic
judgement."
Erwin Josephus Raisz (1893 - 1968)

Perception and Design 135

GPS (Global Positional
System)

Perception and Design 136

Codes of Ethics for the
thematic cartographers
 Have a defining purpose or goal
 Know the map reader
 Don’t lie with data
 Show all relevant data if possible
 Don’t discard data just because you don’t like it
 Accurately portray data in scale
 Avoid plagiarizing
 No biased interpretation using symbols
 Repeatable (maps)
 Attention should be given to differing cultural values and
principles.

Perception and Design 137