Professional Documents
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Mapping
Thematic Mapping 2
See notes
Thematic.pdf
Thematic Mapping 3
Classification
Degree of generalization
Function
Subject
Thematic Mapping 4
Degree of
generalization
An analytic map-showing distribution of
one or more elements of the phenomenon
using nominal data
A complex map- superimposition of
several more or less mutually related
spatial distribution each with its own
respective nominal or ordinal data
A synthesis map-integrated spatial
structure, maps that answers questions at
all levels
Thematic Mapping 5
Function
Inventory
Educational
Analytical
Thematic Mapping 6
Subject
Decimal indexing
0-base maps
1-Natural phenomena
2-Population &culture
3-Economic
4-Communication
5-Political-administrative
6-Historical
7-Planning &environmental management
8-Cosmological
9-Composite &miscellaneous content-ecological,
tourists
Thematic Mapping 7
Base maps
A map containing topographic information
and on which the thematic information can
be plotted
Base map has to be made functional to the
thematic map
Application of detailed or generalized base
map depends on the scale, purpose and
subject of the thematic map
Better to use as a source document for base
map - a map on a larger scale than the final
thematic map than on a smaller scale
Thematic Mapping 8
Elements of base
maps
Graticule/grid
Drainage pattern
Relief
Settlements
Communication system
Administrative units
Geographical names
Projection-scale, purpose, place, size of area
to be presented
Thematic Mapping 9
Thematic Mapping
Objectives of map design
Data measurement
Basic statistical concepts and processes
Thematic map representations
Thematic Mapping 10
Objectives of Map
Design
Geographical variables are so diverse
and complex, we must understand
their essential nature.
Geographical ordering - locational
relationships.
Discrete phenomena.
Continuous phenomena.
Thematic Mapping 11
Discrete
phenomena
A distribution that does not occur everywhere
in the mapped area
Can only occupy a given point in space at
any time
Can be measured in integers, categories
Discontinuous phenomena that can only be
ascertained at particular location and not
elsewhere e.g. Vegetation types, population
Thematic Mapping 12
Continuous
phenomena
Data that are distributed continuously
without interruption across the surface
Describes data that can be measured
everywhere e.g. temperature, air
pressure, elevation
Thematic Mapping 13
See notes
j.b.krygier
Thematic Mapping 14
Data
Measurement
Scales of measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Use of the scales of measurement in
thematic mapping
Thematic Mapping 15
Nominal Scales of
Measurement
Point Line Area
Town River Swamp
Thematic Mapping 16
Ordinal Scales of
Measurement
Point Line (roads) Area
Large National Industrial regions
Provincial Major Minor
Medium
County
Small Township
Smoke pollution
Thematic Mapping 17
Interval-Ratio
Scales of
Measurement
Point Line (roads) Area
Thematic Mapping 18
Basic Statistical
Concepts and
Processes
It is often necessary to manipulate raw
data prior to mapping.
Pre-map data manipulation stage:
Making data to be mapped comparable.
Thematic Mapping 19
Absolute and
Derived Data
Absolute qualities or quantities: observed,
measured or counted quantities
“raw data” maps showing land use
categories, production of goods, elevations
above sea level, etc.
Derived/relative values.
Calculated, Summarisation or relationship
between features.
Four classes of relationships: averages, ratios,
densities and potentials.
Thematic Mapping 20
Averages
Measures of central tendency
Three commonly used averages in
cartography:
Arithmetic mean
Median
Mode
Thematic Mapping 21
Arithmetic Mean
Arithmetic Geographical
mean mean
n n
∑x i ∑a x i i
x= i =1
x= i =1
N A
Thematic Mapping 22
Median and Mode
Median - the attribute value in the
middle of all ordered attribute values
Geographic median - the attribute value
below which and above which half the
total area occurs
Mode - the value that occurs most
frequently in a distribution
Area modal class - the class which
occupies the greatest proportion of an
area
Thematic Mapping 23
Ratios
Something per unit of something else
Ratio or rate Proportion Percentage
na na na
x= x= x = ×100
nb N N
Thematic Mapping 24
Densities
Relative geographical crowding or
sparseness of discrete phenomena
n
D=
A
Thematic Mapping 25
Potentials
Individuals comprising a distribution (e.g. people or
prices) interact or influence one another.
The gravity concept: the degree of interaction is directly
proportional to the magnitudes of the phenomena and
inversely proportional to the distance between their
locations
Pi-potential of place i, X j-value of X at each place, D I j-distance between
place I and j
Repeat calculation at each place
n
xj
Pi = xi + ∑ (i ≠ j)
j =1 Di , j
Thematic Mapping 26
Thematic Map
Representations
Indices of variation
Mode - variation ratio
fm am
V = 1− ; V = 1−
N A
Median - quantile range (quartiles, ceciles or
centiles (percentiles))
Arithmetic mean - standard deviation
∑(x )
n
2
i −x
σ= i =1
N
Thematic Mapping 27
Scaling Systems
Thematic Mapping 28
Some Basic
Statistical
Relations
Regression analysis
Correlation analysis
Spatial autocorrelation
∑(x )( )
n
i − x yi − y
r= i =1
∑ ( x − x) ⋅ ∑ ( y )
n n
2 2
i i −y
i =1 i =1
Thematic Mapping 29
Regression
analysis
The description of the nature of the relationship between two or more
variables; it is concerned with the problem of describing or estimating
the value of the dependent variable on the basis of one or more
independent variables.
Statistical technique used to establish the relationship of a
dependent variable, such as the sales of a company, and one
or more independent variables, such as family formations,
Gross Domestic Product per capita income, and other
Economic Indicators. By measuring exactly how large and
significant each independent variable has historically been in its
relation to the dependent variable, the future value of the
dependent variable can be predicted. Essentially, regression
analysis attempts to measure the degree of correlation between
the dependent and independent variables, thereby establishing
the latter's predictive value.
Thematic Mapping 30
Correlation
analysis
A causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal
relationship, especially a structural, functional, or
qualitative correspondence between two
comparable entities: a correlation between drug
abuse and crime.
Statistics. The simultaneous change in value of two
numerically valued random variables: the positive
correlation between cigarette smoking and the
incidence of lung cancer; the negative correlation
between age and normal vision.
An act of correlating or the condition of being
correlated.
Thematic Mapping 31
Example
Area Per Capita Personal Per Capita Educational Number of First-degree
Income ($) Expenditure ($) Graduates ($)
A 3882 273 330
B 4395 266 910
C 3870 240 500
D 5695 333 40
E 4282 273 870
F 4082 276 70
G 3952 210 240
H 5770 357 2920
J 5938 340 530
K 5550 390 1760
L 5304 314 460
M 4840 280 1670
N 4830 360 580
P 5745 376 0
Q 4570 287 2500
(Source: Robinson, et al., 1995)
Thematic Mapping 32
Regression
Analysis
3000
400 Yˆ = −335.67 + 0.2533 X
380
2500 r = 0.21
360
Per Capita Educational Expenditure ($)
320
1500
300
Yˆ = 19.85 + 0.5883 X
280
1000
260
r = 0.85
240 500
220
0
200
3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500
3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500
Per Capita Pe rsonal Income ($)
Per Capita Personal Income ($)
Thematic Mapping 33
Areal Units
Thematic Mapping 34
Observed,
Predicted and
Residuals
Maps showing
observed per capita
educational
expenditures,
predicted per capita
educational
expenditures based
on per capita
income, and
residuals from the
regression.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Thematic Mapping 35
Observed,
Predicted and
Residuals (Cont.)
Maps showing
observed numbers
of first-degree
graduates,
predicted numbers
of first-degree
graduates based on
per capita income,
and residuals from
the regression.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Thematic Mapping 36
Data Classification
Systematically grouping data based on one or more
characteristics
Arrange data before displaying them
3 reasons why we classify data:
Technical constraints: manual vs digital
Data accuracy: classification smooth out data inaccuracy
Perceptional demands -Classification result in clearer map
image, Classification enables selective perception of
seeing groups and patterns, Classifications is helpful to
enhance insight in the data
Classification is a generalization process-improve
understanding and readability
Thematic Mapping 37
Data classification
classification is a key method of abstracting reality into
simplified map
method of classification is important as effects ‘look’ of the
map
classification scheme can easily be experimented with
(manipulated?) to give the pattern you want
classification should ‘match’ data distribution
number of classes. can reader interpret between them?
recommended max of 6
distribution of zones into classes
Thematic Mapping 38
Same data plus
different classification
equal different looking
choropleth map!
Thematic Mapping 39
Classification
Tobler(1973)-unnecessary to classify
data- (unclassed data)
Resulting image not generalized
Those oppose to Tobler: reason –
virtually impossible to perceive
differences between neighbourhoods
that are further apart geographically
Thematic Mapping 40
To classify or not
to classify?
What is the map purpose?
Interested in: to be able to determine
values of each area? or is it just an
overview?
If decides to classify:
nature of data
What types of data are available?
Thematic Mapping 41
Conditions for
Clear Overview
The final map should approach the statistical
surface as closely as possible
A statistical surface exists for any distribution that
is mathematically continuous over an area and is
measured on an ordinal, interval or ratio scale.
(Robinson)
A statistical surface is a 3-D representation of the
data in which the height is made proportional to
the values of data
Visualization allows cartographic induction
2 types: i.stepped-derived from choropleth
ii.smooth- derived from isoline maps
Thematic Mapping 42
Thematic Mapping 43
General Conditions for
Clear Overview
The final map should display those
patterns or structures that are
characteristics for the mapped
phenomenon. Extreme high or low
values should not disappear.
Each class should contain its share of
the observed values
Thematic Mapping 44
Cont..
Encompass the full range of data- Class interval must
cover from the lowest to the highest value
Classes may not overlap
No class interval should be vacant
The accuracy of the classification may not exceed the
accuracy of the original data
If possible have a logical mathematical relationship
between class interval
Rounded off class limits are better understood and
memorized
The no. of classes must give good portrayal of the
distribution
Thematic Mapping 45
Primary Types of
Classification
There is no one best way to classify data – depends on the
purpose of the map
Simplicity is the top goal, no matter if the end result is visual
or mathematical
Exogenous
Values not related to the actual data set are used to
subdivide into groups
Example: A specific income level used to define 'poverty
level'
Arbitrary
Constant, rounded values having no relation to the
distribution of data values are used to divide the data
Usually used as a matter of convenience - easy to
implement
Example: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, etc.
Thematic Mapping 46
Cont..
Idiographic
A long-used technique, most preferred by
cartographers
Classes are determined by the "natural breaks" in the
data set
Example: Given the data set, 1 2 3 6 7 8 11 12 14, the
breaks could occur between 3 and 6, 8 and 11
Serial
Uses standard deviation, equal intervals, and
arithmetic and geometric progressions to divide up
the data sets
Example: data showing a bell curve distribution
Thematic Mapping 47
Jenks and Coulson
(1963)
Choose a map type
Limit the number of classes. Research
revealed that humans can handle up
to max 7 classes to get an overview.
The exact no. of classes is influenced
by: the type of symbolization, the
theme’s geog. distribution and the
data range
Define the class limits
Thematic Mapping 48
General steps in
Data Classification
-Robinson
Need to determine the no. of classes, the
sizes of the class intervals, the class
limits
Put data into array
Construct a dispersal graph/scatter diagram
Produce graphic array (curve)
Compare graphic array curve with theoretical
(mathematical) curve
Determine the classification methods, select
most appropriate classification
Decide no. of class, calculate class limits,
adjust class limits
Thematic Mapping 49
Thematic Mapping 50
How many
Classes/category?
Factors
User requirements
Visual variables used
No. of data values
Size of areal units/symbols
Distribution of data
Grouping of data around the middle
value
Thematic Mapping 51
No. of Classes-ITC
Point Line Area
Size 4 4 5
Value 3 4 5
Texture 2 4 5
7(+-)2 = 5 to 9
Thematic Mapping 52
Classification-
Class limits
2 approaches
Graphic
Mathematic methods
Thematic Mapping 53
Classification-
Graphic approach
Natural breaks/break points
Sort observed values
Observe discontinuities/break points-
function as class boundaries
Frequency diagram
Cumulative frequency diagram
Thematic Mapping 54
Classification-
Mathematic
approach
(Robinson)
Constant series or Equal steps/Equal interval
Based on range
Parameters of normal distribution
Quantiles
Systematically Unequal Stepped Class limits
Arithmetic series
Geometric series
Irregular Stepped Class limits
Frequency graph
Clinographic curve
Cumulative frequency curve
Thematic Mapping 55
Thematic Mapping 56
Thematic Mapping 57
Natural Breaks
A method preferred by many
cartographers because it captures the
character of the data set
Natural groupings in the data are
sought and their obvious breaks are
used as the class boundaries
Thematic Mapping 58
Thematic Mapping 59
Quantiles
This method divides the data set into equal number of values in each
class
This minimizes the importance of class boundaries, but it can be
misleading because one class could have widely differing values
Common methods: quartiles (4 classes), quintiles (5 classes), deciles
(10 classes)
This differs from constant intervals; in this you divide up the number of
values in the data set, not the values themselves as with constant
Choose the number of classes, then compute limits using difference of
domain ranking
rank the attribute data values in ascending order
# of data observations / # of classes = # of
observations in each class
apply symbolization to “mimic” the increasing/decreasing magnitudes
Thematic Mapping 60
Thematic Mapping 61
Equal
Interval/equal
steps
This is a common method and very easy to use
Imagine passing planes of an equal distance through a
data set (like elevation)
This method encloses equal amounts of the total data
range into each class interval
Choose the number of classes, then compute limits
using difference of range
max data value – min data value =
range
range / # of classes = class interval
the # of classes establishes how many “equal intervals”
will be used
apply symbolization to “mimic” the
increasing/decreasing magnitudes
Thematic Mapping 62
Equal interval
Ex: Data set range from 0-36 and no.
of class is 4
Class 1 0-9
Class 2 10-18
Class 3 19-27
Class 4 28-36
Thematic Mapping 63
Thematic Mapping 64
Standard
Deviations
If a data set displays a normal frequency
distribution, then this method can be used
Measure for the spread of data around the
mean
The mean is calculated and then the
standard deviation using statistical
mathematics
Usually no more than 6 classes are
necessary to convey the information
Thematic Mapping 65
Cont..
Working from the mean outwards in units of
S, which gives an even no. of classes
Class 1 <(mean-S)
Class 2 (mean-S) to mean
Class 3 mean to (mean+S)
Class 4 >(mean+S)
Where S = Standard deviation
Thematic Mapping 66
Thematic Mapping 67
Arithmetic/Geome
tric Progressions
Both of systematic/mathematical
classification methods
Arithmetic is used only when the
shape of the data set approximates
the shape of a typical arithmetic
progression
Geometric is used when the frequency
of the data declines with increasing
magnitude - something typical in
geographic data
Thematic Mapping 68
Arithmetic
Progressions
The width of class increases with
constant value .
Example:
Class 1 0-2 width=2 or I
Class 2 2-6 width=4 or 2I
Class 3 6-12 width=6 or 3I
Thematic Mapping 69
Arithmetic
progression
If no. of class is known,
Xmin+I+2I+3I+4I+…..=Xmax
If Xmin & Xmax , n are known
Calculate I= Xmax-Xmin/(n(n+1)/2)
Where Xmax=max value
Xmin=min value
I=class interval
n=no. of class
Thematic Mapping 70
Geometric
progression
Upper class limit increase in size by multiplying
with a constant factor
Example
Class 1 1-10 10¹
Class 2 11-100 10²
Class 3 101-1000 10³
etc
In the eg. the factor is 10. The upper limit is always 10 times
bigger than the previous upper limit
Thematic Mapping 71
Geometric
progression
Determine the number of class, n
Then calculate the interval, I
I=sqrt(xmax/xmin)*n
Thematic Mapping 72
Geometric
progression
Classes then:
Class 1 (Xmin) – (Xmin*I)
Class 2 (Xmin*I ) –(Xmin*I²)
Class 3 (Xmin*I²) –(Xmin*I³)
etc
Thematic Mapping 73
Reciprocal
progression
For very skewed distributions
Class 1 (Xmin) to (1/Xmin-I)¹־
Class 2 (1/Xmin-I)¹־to (1/Xmin-2I)¹־
Etc
I =((1/xmin) – (1/Xmax))/n
Where Xmin = min value of data range
Thematic Mapping 76
Thematic Mapping 77
Standard curves
Thematic Mapping 78
Example: 30000
Maximum = 30127
World 25000
Minimum = 0
Population 20000
Mean = 291.3
10000
Std = 1947.1
5000
Thematic Mapping 79
Natural Breaks
1000
Class 1 Class 2
800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)
600
400
200
Thematic Mapping 80
0
35
Natural 30
Breaks
25
20
Frequency
(Cont.) 15
10
0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000
Thematic Mapping 81
Equal Interval
1000
Class 1
800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)
600
400
200
Thematic Mapping 82
0
35
Equal 30
Interval
25
20
Frequency
(Cont.) 15
10
0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000
Thematic Mapping 83
Equal Area
1000
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)
600
400
200
Thematic Mapping 84
0
35
Equal
30
Area
25
20
(Cont.)
Frequency
15
10
0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000
Thematic Mapping 85
Quartile
1000
800
Population Density (persons/sqkm)
600
400
200
Thematic Mapping 86
0
35
Quartile
30
25
(Cont.) 20
Frequency
15
10
0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000
Thematic Mapping 87
Standard
Deviation 0 - 1 Std
1000
-1 Std - 0
800
Mean
Population Density (persons/sqkm)
600
Mean = 291.3
400
SD = 1947.1
200
Thematic Mapping 88
0
35
Mean +1 Std +2
Standard
30
Deviation
25
20
Frequency
15
10
0
2 6 10 30 50 70 90 150 250 350 450 600 800 1000 3000 5000
Mean = 291.3
SD = 1947.1
Thematic Mapping 89
Symbolising
Geographical
Features
Point symbolisation
Qualitative
Quantitative
Line symbolisation
Qualitative
Quantitative
Area symbolisation
Qualitative
Quantitative
Thematic Mapping 90
Qualitativ
e Point
Symbolis
ation
Thematic Mapping 91
Qualitative Point
Symbolisation (Cont.)
Thematic Mapping 92
Quantitative Point
Symbolisation
Various techniques are available to the
cartographer
What technique to use depend on:
Character of the feature to be mapped
Type and complexity of the quantitative
information
The purpose of the map and the map user
Scale of the map
Place/space available on the map
Thematic Mapping 93
Quantitative Point
Symbolisation
Symbols with value indication
Repeating principle
The dot principle- each dot represent a unit value, gives
visual impression of distribution differences, factors: unit
value of dot, size of dot, location of dot
Proportional symbols - sizes proportional to the quantity they
represent, 3 methods to calculate: sqrt method, J.J. Flannery,
range-graded (see notes Dotmap . pdf)
Graphs and diagrams - Line graphs, Bar graphs, Population
pyramid, Pie graphs,Triangular graphs, Circular/clock graphs
Adjacent symbols
Thematic Mapping 94
Quantitative Point
Symbolisation
See Diagrams in Quantitative Point
Folder
Thematic Mapping 95
Quantitative
Point
Symbolisatio
n
Symbols are
proportionally
scaled so that
areas of the
symbols are in the
same ratio as the
population
numbers they
represent.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Thematic Mapping 96
Quantitative Point
Symbolisation (Cont.)
Thematic Mapping 97
Quantitative Point
Symbolisation (Cont.)
Thematic Mapping 98
Use of
Visual
Varia
ble
Thematic Mapping 99
Use of Visual
Variable (Cont.)
Examples of lines of
differing character (the
visual variable shape)
which are useful for the
symbolisation of
nominal linear data.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Some standardised
symbols for
indicating lithologic
data as suggested by
the International
Geographical Union
Commission on
Applied
Geomorphology.
From Robinson, et al., 1995
Portrayal of North
American air masses
and their source
regions. Although
data have quantitative
characteristics, the
intent of this
illustration is simply
to portray location of
air masses. This can
be accomplished by
using nominal area
symbolisation.
Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995
Isopleths
Chorogram
Choros = area, space
2 groups i. Choropleth – Area symbol
applied to an administrative unit.
ii. Chorisogram- a system of shading
or colour applied between two
successive isolines.
Map illustrating
the range-graded
classification of
Florida counties.
The use of the
visual variable
value (colour)
creates a
stepped surface.
Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995
of the
Dimension
Nominal Ordinal/Interval/Ratio
Qualitative Quantitative
Variable shape
Orientation
Value (colour)
Chroma (colour)