When a skilled typist is

typing on a keyboard, she

does not need to look at
each key. Instead, she is
able to type without
recalling the placement of
each key

Once a person has

learned how to ride a
bike, the rider does not
need to specifically
recall each motion that

Memory
Introduction to memory
Models/ Stages of memory

Sensory memory
Working memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Types of long-term memory

Processes of Memory
Failures or Forgetting
Retrieval of long -term
memory

Memory
Memory
persistence of learning
over time via the storage and
retrieval of information
Memory as Information
Processing
similar to a computer
write to file
save to disk
read from disk

Memory
The
process by
which we
encode,
store, and
retrieve
information
Three-system approach to
memory

1- Encoding: the
processing of
information into the
memory system i.e.,
extracting meaning

2- Storage: the
retention of encoded
information over time

3- Retrieval:
process of
getting
information
out of memory

Stages of
Memory

1- Sensory Memory

the immediate, initial recording of

sensory information in the memory system
iconic memory reflects information from the visual system.
Echoic memory stores auditory information coming from the
ears
F T Y C
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sensory memory operates as a kind of snapshot that

stores information which may be of a visual, auditory,
or other sensory nature
Forgetting typically within 1 second

Working Memory
focuses more on the processing of
briefly stored information

3- Short-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items
briefly
look up a phone number, then quickly dial
before the information is forgotten
Forgetting within 15 to 25 seconds

4- Long-Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system

How do we form
connections ?

 A chunk is a meaningful grouping of stimuli that

can be stored as a unit in short-term memory. a
chunk can be individual letters or numbers,
permitting us to hold a seven-digit phone number
(such as 226-4610) in short-term memory. But a
chunk also may consist of larger categories, such
as words or other meaningful units

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Rehearsal : The
repetition of
information that has
entered short-term
memory
Mnemonics are
formal techniques for
organizing information
in a way that makes it
more likely to be

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Rehearsal
The transfer of material from
short- to long-term memory
proceeds largely on the basis of
rehearsal, the repetition of
information that has entered
short-term memory.
Rehearsal accomplishes two
things. First, as long as the
information is repeated, it is
maintained in short-term
memory.
More important, however,
rehearsal allows us to transfer
the information into long-term
memory.

 Priming A phenomenon in
which exposure to a word or
concept (called a prime) later
makes it easier to recall
related information, even when
there is no conscious memory
of the word or concept.
Flashbulb memories are
memories centered on a
specific, important, or
surprising event that are so
vivid it is as if they represented
a snapshot of the event.

Explicit memory
Intentional or
conscious recollection
of information.

Implicit memory
Memories of
which people are
not consciously
aware but that can
affect subsequent
performance and
behavior.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Processes of Memory Failures or

Forgetting

1.Decay is the loss of

information through nonuse.
2.Interference. In
interference, information in
memory disrupts the recall
of other information
3.Cue dependent
forgetting, forgetting that
occurs when there are
insufficient retrieval cues to
rekindle information that is
in memory

Processes of Memory Failures or

Forgetting

4. Proactive
interference in which
information learned earlier
disrupts the recall of
newer material.
5. Retroactive
interference in which
there is difficulty in the
recall of information
learned earlier because of
later exposure to different
material.

Retrieval of long term

Memory
Tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon is the

inability to recall information that one

realizes one knows a result of the difficulty of
retrieving information from long-term
memory.
Recall Memory task in which specific
information must be retrieved.
Recognition Memory task in which
individuals are presented with a stimulus
and asked whether they have been exposed
to it in the past or to identify it from a list of
alternatives.

Forgetting as
Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of
other information
Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new
information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference

disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old
information

 Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
As we process
information,
we filter, alter,
or lose much
of it

 Repression : defense mechanism that

banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and memories
source amnesia attributing to the wrong
source an event we have experienced, heard
about, read about, or imagined.
Misinformation Effect incorporating
misleading information into ones memory of
an event.