Me 303 CH9

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES
In this chapter;
9.1 VAPOR POWER CYCLES

VAPOR CYCLES
AIR CYCLES
9.2 VAPOR REFRIGERATION CYCLES
9.3 AIR POWER CYCLES

9.4 AIR REFRIGERATION CYCLES
9.1 VAPOR POWER CYCLES (i.e, Two-phase power cycles)

1. Rankine Cycle(ideal)
2. Reheat Cycle(ideal)
3. Regenerative Cycle(ideal)
4. Deviation of actual cycles from ideal cycles

9.1.1 The Rankine Cycle; is the ideal cycle for a simple steam power plant. The
processes comprising the cycles are;
CV : Pump(1 2)
1 law w p h 2 h1 vdP v f1 P2 P1 Q Tds dh vdP

st
2 law s total 0
nd
CV : Boiler(2 3)
1st law w 0 & qH h3 h2
2nd law s gen s total s 3 s 2
PH
qH=qin
(+)
(+)
PL
CV : Turbine(3 4)
1 law q 0 & w t h3 h 4
st
1-2: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) pumping in pump

2-3: Constant pressure heating in boiler
qL=qout
(-)
2 nd law s gen s total 0 & s 3 s 4

CV : Condenser(4 1)
3-4: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion in steam st

1 law w 0 & qL h 4 h1
turbine
4-1: Constant pressure cooling in condenser
(-)
2 nd law s gen s total s 1 s 4
(qL )
T0
qH
T0
The Rankine cycle also includes the possibility of SUPERHEATING the vapor as in cycle 1-2-3-4-1.
qH can be represented by the area (a-1-2-2-3-3-3-4-c-b-a) below the process path (2-3) on a Ts-diagram.
qL can be represented similarly by the area (a-1-1-4-4-c-b-a) below the process path (4-1) on a Ts-diagram.
So, Wnet can be represented by the area (1-2-2-3-3-3-4-4-1-1) in the cycle on a Ts-diagram.
w net w t w p qH qL
th
w net qH qL
q
1 L
qH
qH
qH

Effect of PL on th
Effect of T3 on th
Effect of PH on th
If PL then th, x4 , (1-x4)
If T3 then th, x4 , (1-x4)
If PH then th, x4 , (1-x4)
w net w t w p qH qL where w t w t1 w t2 & qH qH1 qH2
9.1.2 The Reheat Cycle;
th
w net qH qL
q
1 L
qH
qH
qH
th, rankine th, reheat x 4, rankine x 6, reheat
CV : HP Turbine(3 4)
1st law q 0 & w t1 h3 h 4
CV : Pump(1 2)
2nd law s gen s total 0 & s 3 s 4
1st law w p h 2 h1 vdP v f1 P2 P1 Q Tds dh vdP
CV : LP Turbine(5 6)
2 nd law s total 0
1st law q 0 & w t2 h5 h6
CV : Boiler(2 3)
1st law w 0 & qH1 h3 h2
2nd law s gen s total s 3 s 2
CV : Boiler reheating (4 5)
2nd law s gen s total 0 & s 5 s 6
1st law w 0 & qH2 h 5 h 4

qH1
T0
qH2
T0
CV : Condenser(6 1)
1st law w 0 & qL h6 h1
(qL )
T0

9.1.3 The Regenerative Cycle;
CV : Pump I(1 2)
w p1 1 m1 h2 h1 1 m1 v f1 P2 P1
CV : Pump II(3 4)
w p2 1 h 4 h3 v f3 P4 P3
CV : Open Feed Water Heater (2 - 3 6)
1 law 1xh 3 m1h6 1 m1 h2
CV : Turbine(5 6 - 7)
w t1 1 h5 h6
w t2 1 m1 h6 h7
CV : Boiler(4 5)
qH 1 h 5 h 4
st
h h2
m1 3
h 6 h2
CV : Condenser(7 1)
qL 1 m1 h7 h1
w net w t w p qH qL
where w t w t1 w t2 & w p w p1 w p2
th
w net qH qL
q
1 L
qH
qH
qH
th, rankine th, reheat th, regenerative
Schematic arrangement for

a closed feedwater heater

Regenerative Rankine Cycle: with Closed FWH
Arrangement of regenerative feedwater

heaters in an actual power plant

9.1.4 Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from ideal ones;
Effect of losses between boiler and turbine
Effect of turbine and pump losses
1. Piping Losses: Pressure drop due to frictional effects and heat transfer to the surroundings
are the main piping losses. Pressure drop(a-b), Heat loss(b-c): Both decrease availability of the
steam.
w
h h4
2. Turbine Losses: Flow loss (heat loss)
ts t 3
3. Pump Losses: Flow loss (heat loss)
w ts h3 h4s
4. Condenser Losses: Cooling below T1<Tsat@PL (minor)

ps
w
h h
w
h h
ps
2s
Deviations of actual from ideal
Cogeneration
Cogeneration system
(Process steam) + (Electricity)
Example 9.1
Determine the efficiency of a Rankine cycle using steam as the working fluid in which the
condenser pressure is 10kPa. The boiler pressure is 2MPa. The steam leaves the boiler
as saturated vapor.
SOLUTION:
Control volume: Boiler.
Control volume: Pump.
Inlet state: P1 known, saturated liquid; state
fixed.
Exit state: P2 known.
wp h2 h1
s2 s1
Inlet state: P2, h2 known; state fixed.

Exit state: P3 known, saturated vapor; state
fixed.
H
3
2
q h h 2605.7kJ / kg
Control volume: Turbine.

Inlet state: state 3 known.
h2 h1 vdP
1
wp v P2 P1 2.0kJ / kg
h2 193.8kJ / kg
Control volume: Condenser.

Inlet state: State 4 known.
Exit state: State 1 known.
qL h4 h1 1815.7 kJ / kg
wt h3 h4
s3 s4 6.3409 0.6493 x4 7.5009

x4 0.7588
h4 2007.5kJ / kg
wt 792.0kJ / kg
wnet qH qL wt wp
th
30.3%
qH
qH
qH
Example 9.3
Consider a reheat cycle utilizing steam. Steam leaves the boiler and enters the
turbine at 4MPa, 400C. After expansion in the turbine to 400kPa, the steam is
reheated to 400C and then expanded in the low-pressure turbine to 10kPa.
Determine the cycle efficiency.
SOLUTION:
Control volume: High-pressure turbine.
Inlet state: P3, T3 known; state fixed.
Control volume: Low-pressure turbine.

wh p h3 h4
wl p h5 h6
s3 s4
s5 s6
h3 3213.6kJ / kg
s3 6.7690kJ / kg
s4 1.7766 x4 5.1193
x4 0.9752
h4 2685.6kJ / kg
h5 3273.4kJ / kg
s5 7.8985kJ / kg
s6 0.6493 x6 7.5009
x6 0.9664
h6 2504.3kJ / kg
wt 1297.1kJ / kg

Inlet state: State 2 and 4 both known.
Exit state: State 3 and 5 both known.
qH h3 h2 h5 h4 3605.6kJ / kg
wnet wt wp 1293.1kJ / kg
th
wnet
35.9%
qH
Control volume: Pump.

Inlet state: P1 known,saturated liquid; state fixed.
wp h2 h1
s2 s1
2
h2 h1 vdP v P2 P1
1
wp 4.0kJ / kg
h2 195.8kJ / kg
Example 9.4
Consider a regenerative cycle using steam as the working fluid. Steam leaves the boiler
and enters the turbine at 4MPa, 400C. After expansion to 400kPa, some of the steam is
extracted from the turbine for the purpose of heating the feedwater in an open feedwater
heater. The pressure in the feedwater heater is 400kPa and the water leaving it is
saturated liquid at 400kPa. The steam not extracted expands to 10kPa. Determine the
Control volume: High-pressure pump.
cycle efficiency. Control volume: Low-pressure pump.
Inlet state: P1 known, saturated liquid; state
SOLUTION:
fixed.
h5 3213.6kJ / kg w h h s s
p1 state:
2 P known.
1
2
1
Exit
w h h 3.9kJ / kg
2
p2
4 3
2
h6 2685.6kJ / kg
s s
h2 h1 vdP v f 1 P2 P1 0.4kJ / kg
4 3
h7 2144.1kJ / kg
h h w 608.6kJ / kg
1
4
3
p2
h
191
.
8
0
.
4
192
.
2
kJ
/
kg
h1 191.8kJ / kg
2
1
p1
w
w 1 m w w 975.7 kJ / kg
Control volume: Feedwater heater.
Inlet state: State 2 and 6 both known.
Exit state: P3 known, saturated liquid; state fixed.
m1 h6 1 m1 h2 h3
m1 0.1654
Exit state: P6 known; P7 known.
w h h 1 m h h 979.9kJ / kg
5
s s s
5
p1
p2

Inlet state: P4, h4 known; state
fixed.
Exit
5 known.
q state:
h hState
2605
.0kJ / kg
H

net

th
w
975.7
37.5%
q
2605
net
H
Example 9.2
A steam power plant operates on a cycle with pressures and temperatures as
designated in the following figure. The efficiency of the turbine is 86% and the efficiency
of the pump is 80%. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.
4 MPa,
400oC
3.8 MPa,
380oC
5 MPa
4MPa
3.8 MPa
6
3
4.8 MPa, 40oC
2
2s 3
5 MPa
10kPa, 42oC
6s

SOLUTION:
CV : Turbine(5 6)
P5 & T5 known state 5 fixed
CV : Boiler(3 4)
h5 3169.1kJ / kg
s5 6.7235kJ / kgK s6 s
h4 3213.6kJ / kg
6.7235 0.6493 x6 s 7.5009 x6 s 0.8098
wt ts wts 0.86 3169.1 2129.5 894.1kJ / kg
qH h4 h3 3213.6 171.8 3041.8kJ / kg
h3 171.8kJ / kg
h6 s 191.8 0.8098 2392.8 2129.5
h6 h5 wt 3169.1 894.1 ..............kJ / kg

CV : Pump(1 2)
wps h2 s h1 v f 1 P2 P1 0.001009 5000 10 5.04kJ / kg

wp w ps / ps 5.04 / 0.8 6.3kJ / kg
h2 h1 wp
wnet wt wp 894.1 6.3 887.8kJ / kg
th
wnet
887.8
29.2%
qH 3041.8

9.2 VAPOR REFRIGERATION CYCLES
9.2.1 Vapor-compression refrigeration cycles: The ideal cycle for vapor-compression
replaced by a throttling device
refrigeration is shown in the following figure as cycle 1-2-3-4-1 Turbine
Compressor handling vapor only
ref qH ....(kW)
Heating Capacity;Q H m
reciprocating : high density fluids

centrifugal : low density fluids
Working fluids to protect the ozone layer (R12, Freon, etc)
PH
PL
ref qL ....(kW)
Cooling Capacity;Q L m
1-2: Saturated vapor of a refrigerant at low pressure absorbed by the compressor and charged (compressed) into
the condenser through an isentropic compression process.
Wc=h2-h1 where h1=hg@PL & s2=s1
2-3: Heat of vapor is then rejected to the surroundings at constant pressure in the condenser. The refrigerant
leaves as saturated liquid from the condenser.
qH=h2-h3 where h3=hf@PH
3-4: An adiabatic throttling process follows in an expansion valve (or throttling valve, or capillary tubes)
h3=h4 where h3=hf@PH
4-1: Wet refrigerant is then heated and evaporated at constant
qL pressure in the evaporator.
qH The refrigerant leaves
HP C.O.PHP
as saturated vapor from the evaporator. R C.O.PR
W
Wc
qL=h1-h4 where h4=h3 & h1=hg@PL
c
Deviation from the Ideal Cycle
Ordinary household refrigerator
Actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

Example 9.13
Consider an ideal refrigeration cycle which uses R-12 as the working fluid. The
temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator is 20C and in the condenser it is 40C.
The refrigerant is circulated at the rate of 0.03kg/s. Determine the coefficient of
performance and the capacity of the plant in rate of refrigeration.
SOLUTION: For each control volume analyzed, the thermodynamic model is the R-12
tables. Each process is SSSF with no change in kinetic or potential energy.
Control volume: Compressor.
Inlet state: T1 known, saturated vapor; state fixed.
Control volume: Expansion valve.

Inlet state: T3 known, saturated liquid; state fixed.
Exit state: P2 known(saturation pressure at T3=40oC).
Exit state: T4 known.
h3 h4 74.53kJ / kg
Pg P2 0.9607 MPa
h1 178.61kJ / kg
s1 s2 0.7082
400C
T2 50.8o C
-200C
h2 211.38kJ / kg
wc h2 h1 32.77kJ / kg
Control volume: Evaporator.

qL h1 h4 104.08kJ / kg
qL
3.18
wc
Capacity 3.12kW
Example 9.14
A refrigeration cycle utilizes R-12 as the working fluid. Following are the properties at various points
of the Cycle. The heat transfer from R-12 during the compression process is 4kJ/kg. Determine the
coefficient of performance of this cycle. SOLUTION:
P1 125kPa
T1 10C
For each control volume, the model is the R-12
Control volume: Throttling valve plus line.
tables. Each process is SSSF with no changes in
kinetic or potential energy.
Exit state: P2, T2 known; state fixed.
Control volume: Evaporator.

Inlet state: P7, h7 known.
q h1 h2 w
Exit state: P7=P6 known, x7=x6.
P2 1.2 MPa
h5 h6 h7 74.53kJ / kgP 1.19MPa

3
T2 100C
T3 80C
P4 1.16 MPa
T4 45C
wc w h2 h1 q qL h8 h7 104.59kJ / kg P 1.15MPa
T5 40C
Exit state: P8, T8 known; state fixed.
h1 185.16kJ / kg
h2 245.52kJ / kg
wc 64.36kJ / kg
qL
1.625
wc
P6 P7 140kPa
x6 x7
P8 130kPa
T8 20C
Example 11-1
Refrigerant-134a is the working fluid in an ideal compression refrigeration cycle. The
refrigerant leaves the evaporator at -20oC and has a condenser pressure of 0.9 MPa.
The mass flow rate is 3 kg/min. Find COPR and COPR, Carnot for the same Tmax and
Tmin , and the tons of refrigeration.
Using the Refrigerant-134a Tables, we have
State 1

kJ
h
238.41
Compressor inlet 1
kg
T1 20o C
s 0.9456 kJ
1
kg K
x1 1.0
State 2

kJ
Compressor exit
278.23
2s
kg
P2 s P2 900 kPa
o
kJ T2 s 43.79 C
s2 s s1 0.9456
kg K
State 3

kJ
h
101.61
3
Condenser exit
kg
P3 900 kPa
kJ
s3 0.3738

kg K
x3 0.0
State 4
x4 0.358
Throttle exit
kJ
T4 T1 20o C s4 0.4053
kg K
h4 h3
Q&L
m&(h1 h4 ) h1 h4
COPR
&
Wnet , in m&(h2 h1 ) h2 h1
kJ
kg
kJ
(278.23 238.41)
kg
3.44
(238.41 101.61)
The tons of refrigeration, often called the cooling load or refrigeration effect, are
Q&L m&(h1 h4 )
kg
kJ 1Ton
(238.41 101.61)
min
kg 211 kJ
min
1.94 Ton
3
COPR , Carnot
TL
TH TL
(20 273) K
(43.79 (20)) K
3.97
Another measure of the effectiveness of

the refrigeration cycle is how much input
power to the compressor, in horsepower,
is required for each ton of cooling.
The unit conversion is 4.715 hp per ton
of cooling. W&
4.715
Q&L
COPR
net , in
4.715 hp
3.44 Ton
hp
1.37
Ton

Heat Pump Systems

Other Refrigeration Cycles
Cascade refrigeration systems
Very low temperatures can be achieved by operating two or more vapor-compression
systems in series, called cascading. The COP of a refrigeration system also
increases as a result of cascading.

Multistage compression refrigeration systems

Multipurpose refrigeration systems
A refrigerator with a single compressor can provide refrigeration at several
temperatures by throttling the refrigerant in stages.

Liquefaction of gases
Another way of improving the performance of a vapor-compression refrigeration
system is by using multistage compression with regenerative cooling. The vaporcompression refrigeration cycle can also be used to liquefy gases after some
modifications.

Absorption Refrigeration Systems
Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a
source of inexpensive heat energy at a temperature of 100 to 200oC is absorption
refrigeration, where the refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium and
compressed in liquid form. The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is
the ammonia-water system, where ammonia serves as the refrigerant and water as
the transport medium. The work input to the pump is usually very small, and the COP
of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as
COPR
Desired output Cooling effect

QL
Q
L
Required input
Work input
Qgen Wpump ,in Qgen

Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems
A refrigeration effect can also be achieved without using any moving parts by simply
passing a small current through a closed circuit made up of two dissimilar materials.
This effect is called the Peltier effect, and a refrigerator that works on this principle is
called a thermoelectric refrigerator.

9.3 AIR STANDARD POWER CYCLES (i.e., single-phase power cycles)
Many work producing devices or engines utilize working fluid that is always a gas such as sparkignition automotive engine, diesel engine, conventional gas turbine.
In all of these engines, there is a change in the composition of the working fluid because during
combustion it changes from air and fuel to exhausted combustion products. For this reason these
engines are called as internal combustion engines.
Internal combustion engine operates on the so-called open cycle in practice, because the working
fluid doesnt go through a complete thermodynamic cycle in the engine. However, in order to
analyze internal combustion engines, it is advantageous to devise closed cycles that closely
approximate the open cycles. One such approach is the Air Standard Cycle, which based on the
Air-standard assumptions:
following assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously
circulates in a closed loop and always
behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle
are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a
heat-addition process from an external
source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heatrejection process that restores the working
fluid to its initial state.
The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition
5. Air has a constant specific heat, if otherwise
process in ideal cycles.
is not stated.
Single-Phase Power Cycle

(Air-Standard Power Cycle)
Brayton cycle Shaft work, gas turbine
Otto cycle PdV work, gasoline engine
Diesel cycle PdV work, Diesel engine
IC engine with an open cycle
-> Approximation by a closed cycle
Combustion replaced by heat transfer
Fixed mass of air as the working fluid

AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Spark-ignition (SI) engines

Compression-ignition (CI) engines
Nomenclature for reciprocating engines.
Mean effective pressure
Compression ratio

9.3.1 The Air Standard Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic expansion,
isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression.
A steady-flow Carnot engine (hypothetical).
rvs
rps
th 1
V4 T4
V1 T1
1
1 k
P1 T4
P4 T1
k
1 k
V3 T3
V2 T2
1
1 k
P2 T3
P3 T2
k
1 k
1 k
T
T4
1 k
1 3 th 1 rps k 1 rvs
T1
T2
Mep
Wnet
QH
th
V3 V1 V3 V1

9.3.2 The Air-Standard Otto Cycle: It is the ideal cycle for a spark-ignition engine
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
Otto Cycle: Ideal Spark Ignition Engine
http://science.howstuffworks.com/engine3.htm
http://www.simtools.com/EngineF1.html
http://www.dailymotion.com/cluster/tech/video/xk952_3d-deutz-engine-animation?from=rss

Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
T-s diagram of the ideal Otto cycle.
The two-stroke engines are

generally less efficient than their
four-stroke counterparts but they
are relatively simple and
inexpensive, and they have high
power-to-weight and power-tovolume ratios.
Schematic of a two-stroke
reciprocating engine.
th 1
Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto

cycle as a function of compression
ratio (k = 1.4).
In SI engines,
the compression
ratio is limited by
autoignition or
engine knock.
T1
T
1 k
1 4 th 1 rvs
T2
T3
The thermal efficiency of the Otto

cycle increases with the specific heat
ratio k of the working fluid.

Example 9.11:The compression ratio in an air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of the
compression stroke the pressure is 0.1MPa and the temperature is 15C. The heat transfer
k 1
to the air per cycle is 1800kJ/kg air. Determine
V4
T3
T4
1. The pressure and temperature at the end of each
V3
k
V4
P3
process of the cycle.
s2 s1
P4
V3
2. The thermal efficiency.
k 1
wnet
1
th 1 k 1
mep
T
V
3. The mean effective pressure. 2
1
rv
v1 v2

3
v1 0.827 m / kg
SOLUTION:
T1 V2
V
1
P1 V2
Control mass: Air inside cylinder.

P2
State information: P1=0.1MPa, T1= 288.2K.
Process information:
Four process known. Also rv=8
and qH=1800kJ/kg.
Model: Ideal gas,
constant specific heat value at 300K.
qH 2 q3 u3 u2 Cv T3 T2
s4 s3
V1
T2
T1
V2
k 1
2.3
T2 662 K
V1
P2
18.38
P1
V2
v2 0.1034m3 / kg
2
P2 1.838 MPa
q3 Cv T3 T2 1800kJ / kg
T3 T2 2512
T3 3174 K
T3
P
3 4.795
T2
P2
P3 8.813MPa
V
T3
4
T4
V3
k 1
2.3
T4 1380 K
V
P3
4 18.38
P4 0.4795 MPa
P4
V3
1
th 1 k 1 0.565 56.5%
rv
4
q1 Cv T1 T4 782.3kJ / kg
wnet 1017.7 kJ / kg v1 v2 mep

mep 1406kPa

9.3.3 The Air Standard Diesel Cycle
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of
autoignition (engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines
can be designed to operate at much higher compression
ratios than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24.
1-2 isentropic
compression
2-3 constantpressure heat
addition
3-4 isentropic
expansion
4-1 constantvolume heat
rejection.
In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced by a fuel

injector, and only air is compressed during the
compression process.
Cutoff
ratio
For the same rvs and piston displacement: (th)Otto> (th)Diesel
For the same Tmax and Pmax(i.e., rvs,otto<rvs,diesel): (th)Otto< (th)Diesel
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Diesel cycle
as a function of
compression and
cutoff ratios
(k=1.4).

Example 9.12: An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18, and the heat
transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800kJ/kg. At the beginning of the compression
process the pressure is 0.1MPa and the temperature is 15C. Determine
1. The pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle
2. The thermal efficiency
s2 s1
k 1
3. The mean effective pressure
T2 V1

SOLUTION:
T1
Control mass: Air inside cylinder.

State information: P1=0.1MPa, T1=288.2K.
P2 V1

P1 V2
qH 2 q3 C p T3 T2
Process information: Four process known.

Also rv=18 and qH=1800kJ/kg.
Model: Ideal gas, constant specific heat value at
s s 300K.
4
V2
T3 V4

T4 V3
w
th net
qH
k 1
mep
wnet
v1 v2
v1 0.827m3 / kg
v2 0.04595m 3 / kg
T2 V1

T1 V2
T3 2710 K
V3 T3
2.959
V2 T2
v3 0.13598m3 / kg
T3
T4
V
4
V3
k 1
2.0588
T4 1316 K
qL 4 q1 Cv T1 T4 736.6kJ / kg
k 1
3.1777
T3 T2 1794
T2 915.8K
P2 V1
57.2
P2 5.72 MPa
P1 V2
qH 2 q3 C p T3 T2 1800kJ / kg
wnet 1063.4kJ / kg
th
wnet
59.1%
qH
mep
wnet
1362kPa
v1 v2
Dual cycle: A more realistic

ideal cycle model for modern,
high-speed compression ignition
engine.
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
Diesel engines operate at
higher air-fuel ratios than
gasoline engines. Why?
Despite higher power to weight
ratios, two-stroke engines are
not used in automobiles. Why?
The stationary diesel engines
are among the most efficient
power producing devices
(about 50%). Why?
What is a turbocharger? Why
are they mostly used in diesel
engines compared to gasoline
engines.
P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle.

9.3.4 The Ericson and Stirling Cycles
Stirling cycle
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)

2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the
working fluid)
A regenerator is a device that borrows

energy from the working fluid during
one part of the cycle and pays it back
(without interest) during another part.

The Stirling and Ericsson cycles
give a message: Regeneration
can increase efficiency.
The Ericsson cycle is very much

like the Stirling cycle, except that
the two constant-volume processes
are replaced by two constantpressure processes.
Both the Stirling and Ericsson
cycles are totally reversible, as is
the Carnot cycle, and thus:
2
4
The execution of the Stirling cycle.
A steady-flow Ericsson engine.

9.3.5 The Brayton Cycle: It is the ideal cycle for simple gas turbine engines.
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a
constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
An open-cycle gas-turbine engine.
A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.
Brayton Cycle
Both Rankine and Brayton Cycles
(Two isobaric processes)
+ (Two isentropic processes)
Two phase : Rankine cycle Steam Power Plant
Single phase : Brayton cycle Gas Turbine
1 k
T1
T4
th 1 1 th 1 rps k
T2
T3
rp
P2 P3
P1 P4
T-s and P-v diagrams for the ideal Brayton cycle.
Thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle as

a function of the pressure ratio.

Example 9.6
In an air-standard Brayton cycle the air enters the compressor at 0.1MPa, 15C. The pressure leaving the compressor
is 1.0MPa, and the maximum temperature in the cycle is 1000C. Determine
1. The pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle
2. The compressor work, turbine work, and cycle efficiency
SOLUTION:
For each of the control volumes analyzed, the model is ideal gas with constant specific heat, value at 300K, and each process is
SSSF with no kinetic or potential energy changes.
Control volume: High-temperature heat
exchange.
Inlet state: state 2 fixed.
wc h2 h1
s2 s1
T2 P2

T1 P1
k 1
k
P2

P1
k 1
k
Exit state: State 3 fixed.
1.932
qH h3 h2 C p T3 T2 819.3kJ / kg
T2 556.8K
wc h2 h1 C p T2 T1 269.5kJ / kg

Inlet state: P3, T3 known; state
fixed.
k 1
wt h3 h4
s3 s4
T3 P3

T4 P4
k 1
k
P3
P
4
Control volume: Low-temperature heat

exchange.
Inlet state: state 4 fixed.
Exit state: State 1 fixed.
qL h4 h1 C p T4 T1 424.1kJ / kg
1.932
T4 710.8 K
th
wnet
48.2%
qH
wt h3 h4 C p T3 T4 664.7kJ / kg
wnet wt wc 395.2kJ / kg

The two major application areas of gas- The highest temperature in the cycle is
limited by the maximum temperature that
turbine engines are aircraft propulsion
the turbine blades can withstand. This
and electric power generation.
also limits the pressure ratios that can be

used in the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the
necessary oxidant for the combustion of
the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to
keep the temperature of various
components within safe limits. An airfuel
ratio of 50 or above is not uncommon.
For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax, the net work of the
Brayton cycle first increases with the pressure ratio,
then reaches a maximum at rp = (Tmax/Tmin)k/[2(k - 1)],
and finally decreases.
The fraction of the turbine work used to

drive the compressor is called the back
work ratio.
Development of Gas Turbines

1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing)
temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery
components (turbines, compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle
(intercooling, regeneration or recuperation,
and reheating).
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine

Cycles from Idealized Ones
Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine and
compressors, pressure drops, heat losses
Isentropic efficiencies of the compressor
and turbine
The deviation of an actual gasturbine cycle from the ideal

Brayton cycle as a result of
irreversibilities.

9.3.6 The Brayton Cycle with Regenerator
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust
gas leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than
the temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor
can be heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow
heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a
result of regeneration since less fuel is used for the same
work output.
T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle

with regeneration.
3
4
5
A gas-turbine engine with regenerator.
Effectiveness or
efficiency of regenerator
T-s diagram of a Brayton

cycle with regeneration.
Cycle efficiency as a function of pressure ratio

for Brayton and regenerative Brayton cycles
Can regeneration be used at high

pressure ratios?
The thermal efficiency depends on
the ratio of the minimum to
maximum temperatures as well as
the pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most effective at
lower pressure ratios and low
minimum-to-maximum
temperature ratios.
Thermal efficiency of the ideal
Brayton cycle with and without
regeneration.

9.3.7 The Brayton Cycle USING Multi-stage compression with Inter cooling, Muti-stage
expansion with Reheating, and Regenerator
A gas-turbine engine with two-stage compression with

intercooling, two-stage expansion with reheating, and
regeneration and its T-s diagram.
For minimizing work input to

compressor and maximizing
work output from turbine:

Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a gas
between two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the compression
process in stages and cooling the gas in between. This keeps the specific volume as low
as possible.
Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as
high as possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing work output.
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration. Why?
Comparison of work inputs to a single-stage

compressor (1AC) and a two-stage
compressor with intercooling (1ABD).
As the number of compression and expansion

stages increases, the gas-turbine cycle with
intercooling, reheating, and regeneration
approaches the Ericsson cycle.

9.3.8 The Air Standard Jet-propulsion Cycle
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are light and
compact and have a high power-to-weight ratio.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called as jet-propulsion cycle.
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in that the
gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they are
expanded to a pressure such that the power produced by the turbine is just
sufficient to drive the compressor and the auxiliary equipment.
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that exit the turbine
at a relatively high pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the
thrust to propel the aircraft.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion. This
is accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid (propellerdriven engine) or greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid (jet or turbojet engine)
or both (turboprop engine).
In jet engines, the high-temperature
and high-pressure gases leaving the
turbine are accelerated in a nozzle to
provide thrust.
Thrust (propulsive force)

Propulsive power
Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive power is the thrust acting on the

aircraft through a distance per unit time.
Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.

Example 9.10
Consider an ideal jet propulsion cycle in which air enters the compressor at 0.1MPa,
15C. The pressure leaving the compressor is 1.0MPa, and the maximum temperature is
1100C. The air expands in the turbine to a pressure at which the turbine work is just
equal to the compressor work. On leaving the turbine, the air expands in a nozzle to
0.1MPa. The process is reversible and adiabatic. Determine the velocity of the air
leaving the nozzle.
SOLUTION: The model used is ideal gas, constant specific heat, value at 300K, and each process is SSSF with no potential
energy change. The only kinetic energy change occurs in the nozzle.
P1 0.1MPa
T1 288.2 K
P2 1.0 MPa
T2 556.8 K
wc 269.5kJ / kg
P3 1.0 MPa
T3 1373.2 K
wc wt C p T3 T4 269.5kJ / kg
T3 T4 268.6
k 1
k
T3 P3

T4 P4
P3
2.142
P4
T4 1104.6 K
Control volume: Nozzle.

Inlet state: State 4 fixed.
V52
h4 h5
2
s4 s5
P5 0.1MPa
T5 710.8K
V52 2C p 0 T4 T5 889m / s
1.2432
P4 0.4668MPa
Modifications to Turbojet Engines

The first airplanes built were all propellerdriven, with propellers powered by engines
essentially identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jetpropulsion-driven engines have their own
strengths and limitations, and several attempts
have been made to combine the desirable
characteristics of both in one engine.
Two such modifications are the propjet engine
and the turbofan engine.
Energy supplied to an aircraft

(from the burning of a fuel)
manifests itself in various forms.
A turbofan engine.
The most widely used engine in aircraft propulsion is the turbofan (or fanjet)
engine wherein a large fan driven by the turbine forces a considerable amount of
air through a duct (cowl) surrounding the engine.

A modern jet engine used to power Boeing 777 aircraft. This is a Pratt & Whitney
PW4084 turbofan capable of producing 374 kN of thrust. It is 4.87 m long, has a
2.84 m diameter fan, and it weighs 6800 kg.
http://education.rolls-royce.com/how-a-gas-turbine-works/
http://www.green-energy-news.com/arch/nrgs2008/20080093.html
http://www.b-domke.de/AviationImages/Rarebird/Images/0809.jpg
http://www.flightglobal.com/assets/getasset.aspx?ItemID=18032

A turboprop engine.
A ramjet engine.

9.4 AIR-STANDARD REFRIGERATION CYLES
The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of
these, the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle, is
used to cool aircraft and to obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is modified
with regeneration. The work output of the turbine can be used to reduce the work input
requirements to the compressor. Thus, the COP of a gas refrigeration cycle is
COPR
qL
qL
wnet , in wcomp , in wturb , out

Example 9.15
Consider the simple air-standard refrigeration cycle. Air Enters the compressor at
0.1MPa, -20C, and leaves at 0.5MPa. Air enters the expander at 15C. Determine
The coefficient of performance for this cycle
The rate at which air must enter the compressor to provide 1kW of refrigeration
SOLUTION: For each control volume in this example, the model is ideal gas with constant specific heat, value at 300K, and
Each process is SSSF with no kinetic or potential energy Changes.
Inlet state: P1, T1 known; state
fixed.
wc h2 h1
s1 s2
T2 P2

T1 P1
k 1
k
1.5845
T2 401.2 K
wc h2 h1 C p T2 T1 148.5kJ / kg
Control volume: Expander.
Inlet state: P3(=P2) known, T3 known; state
fixed.
w
h3 P
h44(=P1) known.
Exit
t state:
Control volume: High-temperature heat exchanger.
s3 s4
Inlet state: State 2 known. q h h C T T
H
2
3
p
2
3
k 1
T3 P3 k
Control volume: Low-temperature heat exchanger.
1.5845
T4 P4
Inlet state: State 4 known. q h h C T T
L
1
4
p
1
4
T4 181.9 K
wt h3 h4 106.7kJ / kg
113.4kJ / kg
71.6kJ / kg
wnet wc wt 41.8kJ / kg
qL
1.713
wnet
Q&L
&
m
0.014kg / s
qL
COMBINED POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Mercury-water binary power system

Combined Brayton/Rankine Cycle System

Combined-Cycle Cascade Refrigeration System

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CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

9.1 VAPOR POWER CYCLES

9.2 VAPOR REFRIGERATION CYCLES

9.3 AIR POWER CYCLES

9.1 VAPOR POWER CYCLES (i.e, Two-phase power cycles)

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

1 law w p h 2 h1 vdP v f1 P2 P1 Q Tds dh vdP

1-2: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) pumping in pump

2 nd law s gen s total 0 & s 3 s 4

3-4: Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion in steam st

2 nd law s gen s total s 1 s 4

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

If PL then th, x4 , (1-x4)

If T3 then th, x4 , (1-x4)

If PH then th, x4 , (1-x4)

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

w net w t w p qH qL where w t w t1 w t2 & qH qH1 qH2

9.1.2 The Reheat Cycle;

th, rankine th, reheat x 4, rankine x 6, reheat

2nd law s gen s total 0 & s 3 s 4

1st law w p h 2 h1 vdP v f1 P2 P1 Q Tds dh vdP

1st law q 0 & w t2 h5 h6

2nd law s gen s total 0 & s 5 s 6

1st law w 0 & qH2 h 5 h 4

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

th, rankine th, reheat th, regenerative

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Schematic arrangement for

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Arrangement of regenerative feedwater

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Effect of turbine and pump losses

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Deviations of actual from ideal

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Inlet state: P2, h2 known; state fixed.

Control volume: Turbine.

Control volume: Condenser.

s3 s4 6.3409 0.6493 x4 7.5009

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Control volume: Low-pressure turbine.

Exit state: P4 known.

Exit state: P6 known.

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Control volume: Pump.

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Exit state: P6 known; P7 known.

Control volume: Boiler.

Control volume: Turbine.

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

4.8 MPa, 40oC

CHAPTER 9: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

P4 & T4 known state 4 fixed

6.7235 0.6493 x6 s 7.5009 x6 s 0.8098

P3 & T3 known state 3 fixed

wt ts wts 0.86 3169.1 2129.5 894.1kJ / kg

qH h4 h3 3213.6 171.8 3041.8kJ / kg

h6 s 191.8 0.8098 2392.8 2129.5

h6 h5 wt 3169.1 894.1 ..............kJ / kg