Chapter 4

(Chapter 3)
Cell Biology

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Basic Structure of the Cell

Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm containing organelles
Nucleus

Functions of the Cell

Cell metabolism and energy use
Synthesis of molecules
Communication.
Cells produce and receive electrical and chemical signals

Reproduction and Inheritance.

Each cell contains DNA. Some cells are specialized to
gametes for exchange during sexual intercourse
3

Plasma Membrane - Functions

Separation of intracellular vs. extracellular materials
Production of charge difference (membrane potential) across the
membrane by regulation of intracellular and extracellular ion
concentrations
Outside of membrane positively charged compared to inside because of
gathering ions along outside and inside

Glycocalyx: combinations of carbohydrates with lipids (glycolipids)

and proteins (glycoproteins)
on outer surface.
Fluid-mosaic model

Membrane Lipids
Phospholipids and cholesterol predominate (Anatomy)
Phospholipids: bilayer. Polar heads facing water in the interior
and exterior of the cell (hydrophilic); nonpolar tails facing each
other on the interior of the membrane (hydrophobic)
Cholesterol: interspersed among phospholipids. Amount
determines fluid nature of the membrane
****** Pink equals anatomy information review if necessary

Fluid nature provides/allows

Distribution of molecules within the membrane
Phospholipids automatically reassembled if membrane is
damaged
Membranes can fuse with each other
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Membrane Proteins
Integral or intrinsic
Extend from one surface to the other
Channels through the membrane
Peripheral or extrinsic
Attached to the inner or outer surface
Functioning depends on 3-D shape and
chemical characteristics.
Markers cell identification
Attachment sites for cells or molecules
Channels allow ions to enter cell
Receptors bind messangers
Enzymes chemical reactions
Carriers specific molecules are
transported in or out of cells

Detailed functions on following slides

Marker Molecules:
Glycoproteins and Glycolipids
Allow cells to identify
one another or other
molecules
Immunity
Recognition of oocyte
by sperm cell
Intercellular
communication

Attachment Proteins
Cadherins attach cells
to other cells
Integrins integral
proteins that attach to
extracellular molecule
Sometimes allow
communication due to
contact with intracellular
molecules

Transport Proteins
Hydrophilic regions face
inward;
Charge determines
molecules that can pass
through
Includes channel proteins,
carrier proteins, and ATPpowered pumps.

Channel Proteins
Nongated ion channels: always open
Responsible for the permeability of the plasma membrane to
ions when the plasma membrane is at rest

Gated ion channels can be opened or closed by certain

stimuli (chemicals or charges)
Ligand gated ion channel: open in response to small
molecules that bind to proteins or glycoproteins
Voltage-gated ion channel: open when there is a change in
charge across the plasma membrane

10

Carrier Proteins
Also called transporters
Integral proteins move ions from
one side of membrane to the
other
Have specific binding sites
Protein changes shape to transport
ions or molecules
Resumes original shape after
transport

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Carrier Proteins
Carrier proteins come in several forms
Uniporters moves one particle
Symporters move two particles in the same
direction at the same time
Antiporters move two particles in opposite
directions at the same time

12

ATP-Powered Transport
Active transport
Requires ATP
The use of energy allows the cell to accumulate
substances
Can move substances against the concentration gradient
For example, can move from low concentration to high

Rate of transport depends on concentration of

substrate and on concentration of ATP

13

Receptor Proteins
Proteins or glycoproteins in membranes with an
exposed receptor site
Can attach to specific chemical signal molecules and
act as an intercellular communication system
Ligand can attach only to cells with that specific
receptor

14

Receptors Linked to Channel Proteins

Receptor molecules linked to channel
proteins
Attachment of receptor-specific
chemical signals (e.g., acetylcholine) to
receptors causes change in shape of
channel protein
Channel opens or closes
Changes permeability of cell to some
substances
Cystic fibrosis: defect in genes
causes defect(s) in channel proteins
Drugs used to alter membrane
permeability through attachment to
channel protein-linked receptors
15

Enzymes
Enzymes: some act to catalyze reactions at outer/inner
surface of plasma membrane.
Surface cells of small intestine produce enzymes that digest
dipeptides or disaccharides (lactase)

16

Movement through the Plasma Membrane

Passive vs. Active
Passive does not require energy
Active requires use of ATP

Diffusion passive
Osmosis passive

Mediated Transport
Requires use of a protein carrier
Does not necessarily require ATP (can be passive or active)

Facilitated diffusion passive

Active transport active
Secondary active transport active
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Diffusion
Movement of solutes from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration in solution
Concentration or density gradient: difference
between two points
Viscosity: how easily a liquid flows

18

Diffusion Into Cells

19

Osmosis
Diffusion of water (solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane.
Water moves from an area of low
concentration of solute to an area of high
concentration of solute
Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent
water from moving across the membrane by
osmosis
Determined by solute concentration
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Osmosis
Comparative terms used to
describe osmotic pressures
of solutions
Isosmotic: solutions with the
same concentrations of solute
particles
Hyperosmotic: Solution with
a greater concentration of
solute particles
Hyposmotic: Solution with a
lesser concentration of solute
particles
21

Osmosis and Cells

Cell volume changes caused by water movement can disrupt normal
cell function
If a cell is placed in a solution that is:
Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells = no net water movement
Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation) = water moves out of cell
Hypotonic: cell swells (lysis) = water moves into cell

22

Mediated Transport
Involve carrier proteins or
channels in the cell
membrane
Characteristics
Specificity for a single type
of molecule
Competition among
molecules of similar shape
Saturation: rate of
transport limited to number
of available carrier proteins
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Saturation of a Carrier Protein

1. When the concentration of x molecules outside the cell is low,
the transport rate is low because it is limited by the number of
molecules available to be transported.
2. When more molecules are present outside the cell, as long as
enough carrier proteins are available, more molecules can be
transported; thus, the transport rate increases.
3. The transport rate is limited by the number of carrier proteins
and the rate at which each carrier protein can transport solutes.
When the number of molecules outside the cell is so large that
the carrier proteins are all occupied, the system is saturated and
the transport rate cannot increase remains at maximum rate
until concentration decreases
See diagram on the next slide.

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Saturation of a Carrier Protein

25

Mediated Transport Facilitated Diffusion

Facilitated diffusion:
Protein carrier- or protein channel-mediated
Passive
Does it require ATP?

Large, water soluble molecules

Electrically charged molecules
Amino acids and glucose in to cell
Manufactured proteins out of cell
Must use carrier or channel specific to the molecule

26

Mediated Transport Active Transport

Active Transport
Requires ATP. (What is ATP?)
Can move substances against the concentration
gradient
From low concentration to high concentration
The use of energy allows the cell to accumulate substances

Rate of transport depends on

concentration of substrate
concentration of ATP

Example: Na+/K+ exchange pump that creates

electrical potentials across membranes
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28

Secondary Active Transport

Active transport of an ion forms

a concentration gradient
That ion will move back down
concentration gradient along
with another molecule in the
same carrier
Ions or molecules move in same
(symport) or different
(antiport) direction.
This example shows cotransport
of Na+ and glucose.

Is the movement of glucose a

symport or an antiport example?
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Endocytosis
Internalization of substances by vesicle formation
Requires energy
Phagocytosis
Engulfment of solid particles or whole cells
WBCs engulf bacteria, foreign bodies, and cell debris

Pinocytosis
Engulfment of molecules dissolved in liquid

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Receptor sites combine with certain molecules to trigger
endocytosis
LDL-cholesterol uptake
Decreased receptors on cell surface leads to high cholesterol in the blood
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Phagocytosis

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Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

32

Exocytosis
Accumulated secretions expelled from cell
Are packaged in vesicles

Examples
Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas
Secretion of mucous by salivary glands
Secretion of milk by mammary glands

33

Cytoplasm
Cellular material outside nucleus but inside plasma
membrane
Composed of Cytosol, Cytoskeleton, Cytoplasmic
Inclusions, Organelles
Cytosol: fluid portion.
Dissolved molecules (ions in water) and colloid (proteins
in water)

34

Cytoskeleton
Supports the cell but has to allow for movements like
changes in cell shape and movements of cilia
Microtubules: hollow, made of tubulin.
Internal scaffold, transport, cell division

Microfilaments: actin.
Structure, support for microvilli, contractility, movement

Intermediate filaments: mechanical strength

Cytoplasmic inclusions: aggregates of chemicals such
as lipid droplets, melanin

35

The Nucleus and Cytoplasmic Organelles

Small specialized structures with particular
functions
Most have membranes that separate interior
of organelles from cytoplasm
Related to specific structure and function of
the cell

36

Nucleus

Membrane-bound
Nucleoplasm, nucleolus and nuclear envelope
Much of the DNA in a cell located here genetic code
Nucleolus is the site of rRNA production

37

Chromosome Structure
Chromatin: DNA
complexed with proteins
(histones)
During cell division,
chromatin condenses into
pairs of chromatids called
chromosomes.
Each pair of chromatids is
joined by a centromere

38

Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
Composed of a large and a small subunit
Made of rRNA

Types
Free
Attached (to endoplasmic reticulum)

39

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough
Has attached ribosomes
Proteins produced and
modified for secretion

Both types have series of

membranes continuous
with the nuclear
envelope

Smooth
No attached ribosomes
Manufactures lipids, cholesterol, and
some hormones
Aids in detoxification of chemicals
and drugs
Which cells would have a lot?

40

Golgi Apparatus
Receives proteins and lipids in transport vesicles
from the ER
Modification, packaging, distribution of proteins
and lipids for secretion or internal use
Which cells would likely have lots of Golgi?

Flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other

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Function of Golgi Apparatus

42

Action of Lysosomes

43

Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes
Smaller than lysosomes
Contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and
amino acids
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of
breakdown

44

Mitochondria
Major site of ATP synthesis
Rod shaped organelles
Membranes
Cristae: Infoldings of inner
membrane
Matrix: Substance located in
space formed by inner membrane

Mitochondria increase in
number when cell energy
requirements increase.
Which cells would have the most?

Mitochondria contain DNA that

codes for some of the proteins
needed for mitochondria
production.
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Centrioles and Spindle Fibers

Located in centrosome: specialized zone near
nucleus
Center of microtubule formation
Before cell division, centrioles divide, move to ends
of cell and organize spindle fibers

46

Cilia
Appendages projecting from cell surfaces
Capable of movement
Power stroke stiff in one direction
Recovery stroke flexible while returning to original position (Why?)

Moves materials over the cell surface

Which human cells are ciliated?

47

Flagella
Similar to cilia but longer (usually only one per cell)
Move the cell itself in wave-like/propeller fashion
Example: sperm cell

48

Microvilli

Extension of plasma membrane

Increase the cell surface area
Normally many on each cell (What type of cells?)
One tenth to one twentieth size of cilia
Do not move

49

Cell Connections
Found on lateral and
basal surfaces of cells
Functions
Form permeability layer
Bind cells together
Provide mechanism for
intercellular
communication

Types
Desmosomes
Tight junctions
Gap junctions

50

Cell Connections
Desmosomes: disk-shaped regions of cell membrane
Function: Hold cells together
Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin.
Often found in areas that are subjected to stress

Hemidesmosomes: half of a desmosome;

Function: Attach epithelial cells to basement membrane.

Tight Junctions:
Function: Form the permeability barrier.
Help hold cells together

Gap Junctions: protein channels aid intercellular communication.

Allows ions and small molecules to pass through.
Coordinate function of cardiac muscle.
May help coordinate movement of cilia in ciliated types of epithelium.
51

Genes and Gene Expression

Gene expression
Production of proteins from information stored in DNA
Involves 2 steps:
Transcription: Synthesis of RNA based on the nucleotide
sequence in DNA. (rRNA, mRNA, tRNA)
During gene expression, a region of the DNA is copied onto a
single-stranded messenger RNA (mRNA) that can go from the
nucleus to the cytoplasm

Translation: The code on the mRNA is interpreted and made

into a polypeptide chain (long chain of amino acids) by
ribosomes and tRNA in the cytoplasm
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Transcription
The strands of DNA are separated
RNA polymerase (enzyme) binds at
a promoter region
RNA polymerase catalyses the
formation of a mRNA chain using
the DNA as a template and
following the rules of
complimentary base pairing
A with U, T with A
C with G, G with C
DNA = AGGTCAT
RNA = UCCAGUA

Transcription ends at a terminator

sequence
53

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54

Posttranscriptional Processing
Entire gene does not code for a
protein
After transcription to pre-mRNA,
sections are removed
Introns non-protein coding
regions (are removed)
Exons protein coding regions,
are spliced together, and further
processed into functional mRNA
Proceed to the cytoplasm for
translation into protein
Alternative splicing allows one
gene to code for different proteins
55

Translation
Translation
synthesis of a protein from the information coded in mRNA

Turns mRNA into a polypeptide chain

What is a polypeptide?

Involves rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA

Codons 3 nucleotide units on an mRNA molecule
Each codes for a specific amino acid

tRNA has an anticodon at one end and an amino acid at

the other end
tRNA anticodons match with mRNA codons
the rRNA catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between
the amino acids at the opposite end of the tRNA
56

Translation
(continued)
Multiple ribosomes can
bind to a single mRNA
molecule, so many
proteins can be produced
simultaneously
Proteins often need to be
processed after translation
to become fully functional

57

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58

Regulation of Gene Expression

All nucleated cells except germ cells have the full
complement of DNA.
During development, differentiation occurs and some
segments of DNA are turned off in some cells while
those segments remain on in other cells.
During the lifetime of a cell, the rate of protein
synthesis varies depending upon chemical signals that
reach the cell.
Example: thyroxine from the thyroid causes cells to
increase their metabolic rate. More thyroxine, higher
metabolic rate; less thyroxine, lower metabolic rate.
59

Cell Life Cycle

Interphase

Phase between cell divisions (90%)

Replication of DNA (S phase)
Ongoing normal cell activities
If cell is not going to divide, it
enters into the G0 phase

Mitosis: division of a mother cell

into two daughter cells.

Cells are genetically identical

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Cytokinesis: division of cell cytoplasm

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Replication of DNA

Make a copy of DNA to prepare for cell division

Occurs during the S phase of interphase
DNA strands separate
The old strands become the templates for the new
(complementary) strands to form
Two identical DNA molecules are formed by
semiconservative replication = each DNA molecule
contains one old strand and one new strand of DNA
DNA polymerase enzyme that catalyzes the
formation of new nucleotide strands
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Replication of DNA

62

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63

Cell Division
Interphase
DNA replication occurs in the S phase

Mitosis
1. Prophase nuclear envelope disintegrates
and the chromatin condenses, centrioles
move to poles of cell, spindle fibers extend
from centrioles & attach to kinetochores of
the chromosomes
2. Metaphase chromosomes are aligned in
the center of cell at the cell equator
3. Anaphase spindles separate the
chromatids, cytokinesis begins
4. Telophase chromosomes decondense,
nuclear envelope reforms, cytokinesis
continues
64

Cell Division

p. 142-143

65

Cell Division (cont.)

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Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis

Cytoplasmic division,
Separate process from mitosis
Often starts during anaphase & continues through telophase
Cleavage furrow indent of cell membrane that indicates
start of cytokinesis

67

Genetics
Study of heredity
Explains how certain characteristics are
passed on to offspring

McKinley: p. 1162-1164
Seeley: chapter 3
68

Genetics
Genotype: actual set of alleles a person has for a
given trait describes genetic code
A person has two alleles for each gene one from
father, one from mother
Genotype = AA, Aa, or aa

Phenotype: the expression of genes as a trait

Example: Appearance, such as height, hair color, etc.

Dominant and recessive alleles

Dominant masks effects of recessive genes

Sex-linked traits: traits affected by the genes on

the sex chromosomes

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Mendalian Genetics
Homozygous: Having two of the same alleles for a trait.
Homozygous dominant: AA
Expresses the ________________ phenotype

Homozygous recessive: aa
Expresses the ________________ phenotype

Heterozygous: Having one dominant and one recessive

allele for a trait
Aa
Usually expresses the ______________ phenotype
Punnett Squares can be used to determine genotype
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Chromosomes
Genetics: study of heredity
DNA: genetic material of cells;
controls cell activities
Found in discrete sections called
chromosomes
Autosomal and sex (X or Y)
Contain thousands of genes

Diploid: two copies of each

chromosome (46 in humans)
Haploid: one copy of each
chromosome, only in gametes
What is the haploid # in humans?

Karyotype: map of
chromosomes
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Chromosomes
Homologous: pairs of
chromosome where one is
from the father and the
other is from the mother
Locus: the location of a
gene on a chromosome
Allele: different forms of
the same gene
Multiple alleles
sometimes alleles come in
more than just dominant and
recessive forms
ABO blood types
72

Gene Dominance
Complete dominance: the dominant allele covers up the
recessive allele and is the only allele expressed (albinism)

Codominance: both alleles are expressed equally at the

same time (ABO blood types)

IAIA and IAi = Type A blood, only A antigen on RBCs

IBIB and IBi = Type B blood, only B antigen on RBCs
IAIB = Type AB blood, both A and B antigens on RBCs
ii = Type O blood, no antigens are expressed on RBCs

Incomplete dominance: the dominant allele and the

recessive allele both are expressed, with the recessive being at a
much lower level
Results in a phenotype intermediate to homozygous conditions
73

Polygenic Traits
Determined by expression of multiple genes on
different chromosomes
Not just dominant and recessive on one gene
Results in a range of phenotypes
Height, eye and skin color, intelligence

74

Sex-linked Traits
Affected by areas of the X and Y chromosome
Female = XX, Male=XY
For sex linked, recessive traits to be expressed:
Female must have both X chromosome affected from
mother and father
Males have only one X, so if they inherit the recessive
allele on the X from the mother, will have the condition
Practice drawing the Punnett square to see why

X-linked traits more often affect males

Hemophilia, color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Y-linked traits only affect males

75

Meiosis and the Transmission of Genes

Meiosis: DNA replication followed by two cell
divisions
Results in 4 daughter cells, each with haploid # of
chromosomes
Homologous pairs are separated
Resulting gametes (egg, sperm) unite to form a zygote
Homologous pairs are reunited
New pairs are a mixture of DNA from two individuals
Provides genetic diversity
76

Meiosis and the Transmission of Genes

77

Genetic Disorders
Genetic disorders:
abnormalities in DNA
May be inherited or may
result from mutations
Congenital disorders
Disorders that a person is
born with
Not all birth defects are
genetic
Teratogens: agents that
interfere with embryonic
development and cause
non-genetic birth defects
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Mutations
Alterations of DNA
Mutagens: agents that cause
mutations

Cancer: tumor due to

uncontrolled cell division
Oncogenes: genes which are
associated with cancer
Tumor suppressor genes
Carcinogens
Genetic susceptibility or
predisposition
Highly affected by
environment, also

Genetic Disorders

79

Questions about Chapter 4?

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