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Jude Sondoh, PhD

Choosing

appropriate scales and

measures
Measurement issues

There are many thousands of validated scales that


can be used in research.
Finding the right one for your purpose is sometimes
difficult.
A thorough review of the literature in your topic area
is the first place to start.
What measures have been used by other
researchers in the area?
Sometimes the actual items that make up the scales
are included in the appendix to a journal article,
otherwise you may need to trace back to the original
article describing the design and validation of the
scale you are interested in.

In choosing appropriate scales there are two


characteristics that you need to be aware of: reliability
and validity. (you need to read the methodology section)
Both of these factors can influence the quality of the
data you obtain.
When reviewing possible scales to use you should collect
information on the reliability and validity of each of the
scales.
No matter how good the reports are concerning the
reliability and validity of your scales, it is important to
pilot-test them with your intended sample.
Sometimes scales are reliable with some groups (e.g.
adults with an English-speaking background),but are
totally unreliable when used with other groups (e.g.
children from non-English-speaking backgrounds).

Measurement of the studied construct(s) (e.g., image, satisfaction,


performance, value) must be in line/congruent with the theory that
you adopted or adapted (i.e. slightly modified with the previous
model e.g. you introduce new dimensions of the
construct/moderating factors).
What is the governing theory/theories underlying your
framework?
Candidate fails to relate concepts with theory underlying the
study
you might operationalized/measured the studied construct
wrongly
Understand the theory, how each of the construct/concept in the
model being conceptualized by the researcher(s) e.g. Ajzen &
Fishbein (1980), Daviss TAM model, Rodgers Diffusion model .
E.g. TRA (theory of reasoned action), TAM (technology adoption model), CognitiveAffective-Conative traditional attitude model, Contingency theory, Resource based theory,
Equity theory, Diffusion of innovation model and etc.

Used measurements that fits to your study and in line


with what the theory and concept.
Candidate needs to conceptualize the concepts clearly
and critically.

Cognition

Affect

Beliefs,
thoughts,
perception
s
e.g.,
perceived
quality,
perceived
brand
image,

Emotion
e.g.,
good/bad,
liking,
overall
satisfaction,
pleasurearousaldominance

Conati
ve

Intention
to Behave
e.g.,
purchase
intention,
repurchase
intention,
recommend
intention

Table 3.2
Measurement Items for Brand Reputation

No. Brand reputation

Source

1.

I believe this brand always fulfills the promises


it makes to its customers.
The brand has a good reputation.

Adapted from Nguyen &


LeBlanc (2001)

Adapted from Nguyen &


LeBlanc (2001)

4.

I believe that the reputation of the brand is


better than the others.
I have total confidence with the brand.

5.

I find the brand totally trustworthy.

Adapted from Burt &


Carralero-Encinas (2000).

6.

Using the brand will never let me down.

Adapted from Burt &


Carralero-Encinas (2000).

2.
3.

Adapted from Nguyen &


LeBlanc (2001)

Adapted from Burt &


Carralero-Encinas (2000).

Candidate tends use measurement items that


consist of two concepts (e.g. Perception/think and
Action/do)
For example: this is wrong..
The brand is highly reputable that motivates me
to use it in the future.
The brand is highly
reputable

Motivates me to use
it in the future

Perception
Intention/do/ac
tion

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

The items/variables that will be used to measure your studied construct(s)


should be adopted/adapted from previous studies.
You shouldn't developed your own measurements
What to do If there is no scale in existence to measure your studied
construct(s).
You can adapt from previous studies ..maybe in different context but must
be in line with the conceptual definition (i.e. that sources/authors must
follow to the one that you are trying adopted).
Based from the definition of the concept by whom (Some researches have
suggested/defined the construct but didn't provide any scale to measure).
You develop the scale based on the definition provide by (who in order
to support your measurement/arguments) then you need to test the items
by interview to those who are experts and public.
Need to conduct Test Retest analysis.
And you have to report this is your thesis (Chapter 3 Methodology section)

Choose only those scales that are reliable


and validity.
For example on personality scales, culture,
Hofstedes culture dimension,
ethnocentrism.
When doing factor analysis: the results
wouldn't be the same as you and previous
researcher conceptualize.
Final run of factor analysis end up with
several dimensions which are not
consistent as expected.

When your measurements are not congruent with the


concept(s)problems will be occurred during data
reduction/factor analysis

reduce the reliability of your studied construct.

Good measurements of the studied variables


generate/yield better output (usually take about two or a
few days to run in SPSS)

If the measurements are not valid/reliable sometimes will


take month to complete factor analysis.

Sometime you have deleted many items which lead you to


drop the studied construct.

Minimum 3 items

Better to have more at least 5 items to measure a construct (onedimensional construct) a dimensions of the studied construct.

When doing data reduction, some of the variables are crossloaded on other factor(s), weak in communality ..you have to
delete those items.

What happen when you only find previous item scales


(adopted/adapted) are less than 3 ..you need to add other
sources that you find suitable to your study.

When you adapted the measurements from many sources ..you


need to do Test and retest analysis.

Thoroughly reading the literature i.e. from the root


till recent ones (in terms of the development of
the concept(s) and the
operationalization/measured).
Helps you during proposal defense and viva
voce..to defend yourself why you used those
scale.
You can see the trend from where previous
adopt/adapt the measurements (especially the
reliability of the measurements).
You should understand whether the items
measurement of the studied construct(s) are
consistent/fit with theory that you apply/adopted.
Pilot test

Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS survival manual: a step by


step guide to data analysis using SPSS for windows
(version 15). Allen Unwin.

Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS


(2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using


multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education.

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., &


Latham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th
ed.).Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.

What is the research problem? What phenomenon are you trying


to explain/understand?
What is happening out there (in business world) that makes your
research worthwhile? What practical problems are you trying to
solve?
What contribution do you expect to make from this research? What
theoretical gaps are you trying to fill?
What are your research questions? Would answers to these
research questions provide answers to your research problem?
What are your research objectives? Have you stated them clearly?
Can you achieve the understanding of your research problem
through these objectives?
Have you defined the important terms used in your proposal?
Whose definitions are you using? Why?

Is this subject of current interest? Why?


Have you collected and reviewed enough literature? Have you
been exhaustive in your literature search?
9.
Is your literature current (Up-to-date)?
10. Have you included the seminal works in this area?
7.
8.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.

Have you obtained the local literature on this topic?


Have you reviewed and not merely copied the literature?
Have you written the literature coherently?
Have you included in the literature the major theories,
concepts, factors, and variables connected with your
research?
Where did you get your research framework? Is it your
own? Why this framework?
How do you justify this framework?
Whats the governing theory/theories underlying your
framework?
What are you dependent variable?
How do your dependent variables reflect the phenomenon
under study?
How do you measure your dependent variable?
What are your independent variables?
How do you measure these independent variables? Whose
measurements are you using? Why?
Are there moderating variables? Why these moderators?
Are there intervening variables? Why these intervening
variables?

25.
26.
27.

28.
29.
30.
31.

What are the expected relationships between the


independent variables and the dependent variables?
Why do you expect these relationships?
Do your hyphothesis statements reflect the
relationships shown in your research
model/framework?
Are there any definite directions in the relationships
between your dependent variable and independent
variables, emerging from the literature/previous
writing?
What is the unit of your analysis? Individual?
Organisational? Group? Transaction?
Are our measurements referring to the same unit of
analysis?
What is the population of your sample? What
list/directory are you using?
What sampling technique are you going to use? Why?
How are you going to choose the sample from the
population?

32.
33.
34.

35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

Are there alternative ways of measuring your


variables? If there are, why choose this one?
Why use five-point scale? Seven-point scale? Why
not use objective data?
If you use interval values in your measurements,
what is the significance of the intervals? (e.g. 1 50,
51- 100)?
Are there duplicating measurement/variables? Why?
How are you going to code each variables?
Isnt your questionnaire too short/too long?
What statistical tool/s are you using to test each
hyphotesis?
Why do you think this tool is appropriate?
Who is your respondent? Is he/she the most
appropriate? Why? Is he/she in a position to give
valid answers? Wouldnt he/she be biased?

Thank you
Good Luck

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