Conservation of Biodiversity

IB syllabus: 3.4
AP Syllabus
Ch. 8, 22,

 http://www.mnn.com/lifestyle/artsculture/stories/14-ted-talks-show-powerconservation-photography

3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity

Arguments about species and habitat preservation can be based on

aesthetic, ecological, economic, ethical and social justifications.
International, governmental and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) are involved in conserving and restoring ecosystems and
biodiversity, with varying levels of effectiveness due to their use of
media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources
and political influence.
Recent international conventions on biodiversity work to create
collaboration between nations for biodiversity conservation.
Conservation approaches include habitat conservation, species-based
conservation and a mixed approach.
Criteria for consideration when designing protected areas include size,
shape, edge effects, corridors, and proximity to potential human
influence.

 Alternative approaches to the development of protected areas

are species-based conservation strategies including:
CITES
captive breeding and reintroduction programmes, and zoos
selection of charismatic species to help protect others in an
area (flagship species)
selection of keystone species to protect the integrity of the
food web.
Community support, adequate funding and proper research
influence the success of conservation efforts.
The location of a conservation area in a country is a significant
factor in the success of the conservation effort. Surrounding
land use for the conservation area and distance from urban
centres are important factors for consideration in conservation
area design.

Why should we worry about conservation?

A. Ethics = we know what we are doing and its
negative effects is it right to continue this?
B. Aesthetics = the natural world is more beautiful
than strip malls and roads should we keep it
around?
C. Genetic resources = end result of millions of
years of evolution unique gene combinations
for disease resistance, chemical production, etc

Why should we worry about conservation?

D. Commercial = many of the products we rely on result
from the biotic component of the planet
- opportunity cost value of the next best alternative
forgone as a result of making a choice
-implies choice of results that are mutually exclusive

E. Life support = plants produce the oxygen we need to

survive, soil provides the means for growing food,
organisms/processes cycle and purify the water we
need
F. Ecosystem support = the interactions of the world are
all connected effect one effect it all

Opportunity Costs

How can we reduce biodiversity loss?

2 main approaches ecosystem or

species directed
1. Preventing premature extinction of
species
2. Preserving & restoring ecosystems
which provide habitats and resources for
the worlds species

The Species Approach

Goal

The Ecosystem Approach

Goal

Protect species from

premature extinction

Protect populations of
species in their natural
habitats

Strategies

Strategy

Identify endangered
species
Protect their critical
habitats

Tactics
Legally protect
endangered species
Manage habitat
Propagate endangered
species in captivity
Reintroduce species
into suitable habitats

Preserve sufficient areas

of habitats in different
biomes and aquatic
systems

Tactics
Protect habitat areas
through private purchase
or government action
Eliminate or reduce
populations of alien
species from protected
areas
Manage protected areas
to sustain native species
Restore degraded
ecosystems

Protection of Wild species

CITES convention on international trade in
endangered species (1975)
152 countries 900 species regulated as
endangered, 29,000 species regulated as
threatened
Helped reduce international trade in many
organisms, organized international awareness,
protected habitats
Enforcement is difficult, Consequences are weak,
Countries have a choice, value of organisms may
increase

Protection of Wild species

CBD convention on biodiversity extends
CITES to conserve biodiversity in general
172 countries
Focused on reversing trends in loss of
biodiversity

Biodiversity

National Legislation
The Lacey Act 1900
Prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals
or their parts across state borders without a
federal permit

The Endangered Species Act 1973

Makes it illegal for Americans to import or trade
in any product made from an endangered or
threatened species unless it is used (1) for
approved scientific purposes or (2) to enhance
the survival of the species

Other Means of protection

Gene banks & Seed banks

Botanical gardens, Farms
Zoos & Aquariums
Captive breeding & Reintroduction
programs
Aesthetic vs. Ecological value

Evaluating Species based

Approaches Captive breeding
Strengths
1. Organisms safe from
poachers
2. Ensure good chance
of offspring survival
3. Artificial insemination
possible
4. Cross fostering is
possible raised by
parent of similar
species

Weaknesses
1. It is artificial
2. Organisms not born in
the wild may not be
able to survive
reintroduction
3. Few actually returned
to wild
4. Lack of habitat to
return them to

Evaluating Species based Approaches

Aesthetic value
Strengths
1. Tourism & recreation
use promotes
interest
2. Sexy megafauna get
public interested in
conserving whole
habitats
3. Personal approach
appeals to people
Save the manatee

Weaknesses
1. More interactions
with people more
damage potentially
2. People may
overlook the deeper
values

Evaluating Species based Approaches

Ecological values
Whats bad?
Whats good?
1. May go over the
1. Shows people the true
heads of the general
critical value of
public
species
2. May be hard to
2. See how it effects us
quantify this for
food web links,
some species
nutrient cycling,
keystone species

Preserves If you save a

habitat you get all of the species

National Parks
1,100 parks in 120 countries
US established in 1912 55+ total parks
Supplemented by state, county & local park
systems

National parks and preserves

National forests

(and Xs) National wildlife refuges

National parks and preserves

National forests

(and Xs) National wildlife refuges

Moderate mineral deposits

Rich mineral deposits
Federal land

Moderate mineral deposits

Rich mineral deposits
Federal land

Park Problems
Only 1% of parks in developing countries are
actually protected, most are paper parks
Often invaded by people looking for subsistence or
those looking for profit
Often too small to sustain larger species
Nonnative invasions
Parks are too popular high traffic, pollution
Lack of funding overworked underpaid staff, Worn
out facilities
Nearby activities including logging, mining, grazing,
power production, water diversion

Managing Parks successfully

Currently practice natural regulation, treat as
self sustaining ecosystem
Often too small to self sustain
Effected by nearby activities, destruction from
within from unbalanced food webs (elk grazing)

Conflicting goals (1) conserve nature, (2)

make nature available to public
Are there solutions?

Suggestions for the future

1. Integrate management for parks & nearby federal
lands
2. Increase budget (1) add new parklands near old
(2) buy existing private land within parks (3)
maintenance
3. Locate commercial facilities outside of parks
4. Better surveys of wildlife conditions
5. Raise entry fees
6. Limit number of daily, yearly visitors
7. Encourage corporate sponsorship

How much land should be

protected?
Need a worldwide network of supported,
connected refuges
At least 20% of earths land area should
be preserved conservationist view
Areas vital to sustaining life on earth and
continuing adaptation & evolution

Less than current 10% should be

preserved developer view
Areas contain valuable resources to aid in
economic growth

Costa Ricas Example

Nicaragua
Costa
Rica

Guanacastle
Arenal

Caribbean Sea
Llanuras de
Tortuguero
La Amistad

Bajo
Tempisque
Cordillera
Volcanica Central
Pacifico Central
Pacific Ocean
Peninsula Osa

Panama

Principles for reserve design

1. Ecosystems are rarely at a stable point
hard to lock them and protect them from
change (nonequilibrium state)
2. Ecosystems which experience frequent,
moderate disturbance have the greatest
diversity (intermediate disturbance
hypothesis)
3. View most reserves as habitat islands in
a sea of developed or fragmented lands

Recall Island Biogeography

theories
Diversity on islands is a function of size and
distance from mainland (balance extinction
vs. colonization)
Help determine
Areas in greatest danger
Size of reserve that will be necessary
How closely must small reserves be spaced to
allow immigration
Size & # of protective corridors connecting parks

The Island Effect

Isolated ecosystems studied by MacArthur
and Wilson in 1960s
Diversity effected by island size & degree
of isolation
Island Biogeography theory: diversity
effected by
Rate of species immigration to island
Rate of extinction on island
Equilibrium point = species diversity

 2004 Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning

Rate of immigration
or extinction

High

Low
Equilibrium number
Number of species on island

(a) Immigration and extinction rates

Island Biogeography

Immigration and Extinction Effected by

1. Size:
small island has less immigration (small target),
Small island has fewer resources, more extinction

2. Distance from mainland:

Closer to mainland more chance of immigration

Applied in conservation for habitat islands

like national parks surrounded by
development

 2004 Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning

Rate of immigration
or extinction

High

Low
Small island

Large island
Number of species on island

(b) Effect of island size

Number of species (percentage of sample studied)

Island Biogeography Data

South Pacific
Islands study
looked at bird
diversity as
distance from
New Guinea
increased

NEW GUINEA

50
25

12.5

Number of amphibian and reptile

species

6.25
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Distance from New Guinea (kilometers)

SABAMONTSERRAT

100
10
Saba
Redonda
1

10

Montserrat

CUBA
Hispaniola
Cuba
Puerto
Jamaica
Rico

2004 Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning

Caribbean Island
study found
bigger islands
had more species
diversity than
smaller islands
which were
otherwise similar

100

100
1,000 10,000 100,000
Area (square miles)

Critical Questions
What shape should the reserve be?
Is one large or many small reserves
better?
Is a heterogenous or homogenous reserve
better?
Should corridors connect small reserves
together?
What is the importance of buffer zones
around reserves?

Core

Core

Both Reserves are the same

area
Which do you think would be
better? Why?

The everglades a case study

The value of wetlands
1. Flood control / water storage
2. Habitat for many species
3. Recharge for aquifer
4. Water filtration / purification
Inland and coastal Wetlands are protected
because of their value in terms of biodiversity, and
the ecological & economic services they provide

Everglades Habitats

Slight changes in elevation (only inches), water

salinity, and soil create entirely different
landscapes, each with its own community of
plants and animals.

Everglades II
Permits are required to fill or disturb wetlands in
US > 3 acres
Current attempts to weaken protective
measures, small percentage even still remain
Now trying for a zero net loss of wetlands
mitigation banking: destroy one, rebuild another
Restoration & protection projects are often
successful
Also created for farm & sewage waste
treatment

Everglades III
South Florida once 100 km wide knee deep
sheet of water moving from Lk. Okeechobee to
FL Bay
On its way south it created various wetlands
with a wide variety of species
Sawgrass is the dominant plant species
Today 56 endangered & threatened species
reside there
Supplies drinking water directly or through
Floridian & Biscayne aquifers for 6-10 million
people

Everglades IV
Since 1948 most of water flow has been diverted by
2,250 km. of canals, pumping stations, etc.
In 1960s meandering 103 mile long Kissimmee R.
reformed into straight 84 mile canal by army corps of
engineers
Below Okeechobee intensified agriculture of sugar
cane developed
Now seeing (1) greater inputs of nutrients from
fertilizer use (nitrogen & phosphorous)
(2) Decreased volume of water, moving faster
through the system
(3) Increases in exotic & invasive species

Kissimmee
River
Channelized

Unchannelized

FLORIDA

Lake
Okeechobee
West
Palm
Beach

Fort Myers
GULF OF
MEXICO

Naples
Fort
Lauderdale

Agricultural area
Treatment marsh
Water
conservation area
Canal

FLORIDA

Miami
Everglades
National
Park

Key Largo

Florida Bay
Area of
detail

20

0
0

20

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

40

40

60 miles

60 kilometers

Everglades V
1947 Everglades National Park established to
preserve the lower end of the system
Contains 20% remaining everglades
Didnt work because of all of the influences on
the water to the north
90% of parks wading birds have disappeared
Other vertebrate populations are down 75-90%
Now the countrys most endangered national
park
Florida Bay suffering from less fresh water as
well as cultural eutrophication
Threatens reefs & fisheries in the Keys

1990 state & federal government agreed upon

38 year $7.8 billion restoration project
1. Restore curving flow of the Kissimmee River
2. Remove 400 km of canals blocking water flow
south of Lk. Okeechobee
3. Buy 240 km2 of farmland & allow it to flood to filter
agricultural runoff before it reaches Everglades
National Park (ENP)
4. Add land adjacent to ENP eastern border
5. Create a network of artificial marshes
6. Create 18 reservoirs & drill wells for storage &
aquifer recharge in rainy season
7. Build new canals & reservoirs to capture current
water lost & return it to ENP

But
ENP does not benefit from the first 10
years, $4 billion of the project
Plan seems to favor agricultural /
consumer uses of water over restoring the
actual habitat
The plan does not specify how much of
the water moving south will actually go to
ENP
Somehow we must undo 120 years of
agricultural & urban development in the
area until it is too late

Evaluation
1. Has the protection of the everglades
been successful thus far?
2. Does the local community support it?
Think about the farmers in the area, the
cities of south east FL, etc.
3. Is there enough funding?
4. Where did the research fail in the past?
Where might it fail in the future?

Organizations supporting
Conservation

WWF: World Wildlife Fund

Established in 1961
to conserve the natural environment and
ecological processes worldwide.
WWFs mission is to stop the degradation of
the planets natural environment and to build
a future in which humans live in harmony with
nature, by:
conserving the worlds biological diversity
ensuring that the use of renewable natural
resources is sustainable
promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful
consumption.

 Role Promoting awareness & conservation of

wildlife
Activities Directed mostly at wildlife conservation,
work with companies like Nike in reducing CO2
emissions, Aid
Use of the media International, internet,
newsletters
Speed of Response stays current on issues
Diplomatic constraints international law &
coordination
Enforceability Limited, no real governmental
power, but broad passive influence

Greenpeace
Greenpeace exists because this fragile earth deserves a voice.
It needs solutions. It needs change. It needs action.
Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, with a presence in 40
countries across Europe, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific.
To maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept
donations from governments or corporations but relies on
contributions from individual supporters and foundation grants.
As a global organization, Greenpeace focuses on the most
crucial worldwide threats to our planet's biodiversity and
environment.
We campaign to:
--Stop climate change
--Protect ancient forests
--Save the oceans
--Stop whaling
--Say no to genetic engineering

The current Rainbow Warrior was

launched on 10 July 1989. The original
vessel was sunk in 1985 by agents of
the French government in an attempt to
foil protests of their nuclear weapons
testing in the Pacific.
The plan backfired, sparking worldwide
outrage, and the rebuilt ship proved that
"you can't sink a rainbow" when it
returned to battle successfully against
the testing programme. Nuclear testing
ended at Moruroa in 1996.
The ship's name was inspired by a
North American Indian prophecy which
foretells a time when human greed will
make the Earth sick, and a mythical
band of warriors will descend from a
rainbow to save it.

 Role - More extreme environmental activist group

Activities Greenpeace's history began in 1971. A group of
ecologists opposed to the war in Vietnam contested US
nuclear testing in the north Pacific. They decided simply to
position themselves in the middle of the testing zone.
Use of the media - Embarked on a campaign to save the
whales. Using Zodiac inflatables, they put themselves
between the whales and the harpoons, generating images
too sensational not to broadcast and creating new public
pressure.
Speed of Response rapid, high profile, technological
approach
Diplomatic constraints Nonviolent but radical group Greenpeace's scientific and market research becomes
pressure tools.
Enforceability - Creative nonviolent action mobilizes public
opinion against the unsustainable practices of governments
or corporations. The objective is to obtain as much coverage
as possible through the media in order to mobilize public
opinion on certain issues.

UNEP: United Nations

Environment Programme
Established in 1972
To provide leadership and encourage
partnership in caring for the environment by
inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and
peoples to improve their quality of life without
compromising that of future generations.

 Role negotiate, monitor, implement

environmental treaties
Activities focus on consumption issues, energy,
food, youth programs
Use of the media limited, website
Speed of Response slower, through government
action
Diplomatic constraints tied to the UN
Enforceability underfunded, undersupported

World Conservation Strategy - 1980

The World Conservation Strategy clarified the ideas of sustainable
development. Its concerns were with the link between the economy and the
environment. The environmental programme (UNEP) together with the
International Union of the Conservation of the Nation (IUCN) and World
Wildlife Fund (WWF) posed ideas to conserve nature. Therefore, suggesting
that economic development and growth should be used to enhance the ability
of societies to conserve nature. The main aim of the Strategy was to explain
how development and conservation of the environment can work together.
The World Conservation Strategy had a focus on conservation and in placing
the main focus on this it does not place as much emphasis on political, social,
cultural and economic issues. This was different to the United Nations
Conference on Human Environment which was held in 1972. Another
difference between the World Conservation Strategy and UNCHE is that the
World Conservation Strategy developed ideas on how they could implement
and develop sustainable development.
Quote from the Conference:
"This is the kind of development that provides real improvements in the quality
of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and diversity of the
Earth. The goal is development that will be sustainable. Today it may seem
visionary but it is attainable. To more and more people it also appears our
only rational option".
(The World Conservation Strategy, IUCN, UNEP, WWF 1980)

 World Conservation Strategy (1980)

Secretariat/focal point: IUCN/UNEP/WWF
Aim/comment: To help advance the achievement of
sustainable development through the conservation of
living resources. The Strategy:
explains the contribution of living resource conservation to
human survival and to sustainable development;
identifies the priority conservation issues and the main
requirements for dealing with them;
proposes effective ways for achieving the Strategy's aim.

World Conservation Strategy

Summary Points
1. Maintenance of essential life support
systems (climate, water cycle, soils) and
ecological processes
2. Preservation of genetic and species
diversity
3. Sustainable use of species and
ecosystems

References

www.iucn.org
http://www.panda.org (WWF site)
www.unep.org
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/
http://www.cbd.int/