Chapter 3

Fuel Combustion
Introduction
The burning of fuel in presence of air is known as combustion.
It is a chemical reaction taking place between fuel and oxygen at
temperature above ignition temperature.
Heat is released during combustion process.
The substances taking part in combustion are called reactants
and the substances produced, during combustion are called
products of combustion.
fuel + air = products of combustion + heat
If the heat is released during the chemical process, it is called an
exothermic reaction.
When heat is absorbed from the surroundings during the
chemical reaction, it is called an endothermic reaction. Therefore,
combustion is an exothermic reaction.
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Combustion occurs when fossil fuels, such as natural gas, fuel

oil, coal or gasoline, react with oxygen in the air to produce heat.
The heat from burning fossil fuels is used for industrial
processes, environmental heating or to expand gases in a cylinder
and push a piston.
Boilers, furnaces and engines are important users of fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, meaning they are composed
primarily of carbon and hydrogen.
When fossil fuels are burned, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
(H2O) are the principle chemical products, formed from the
reactants carbon and hydrogen in the fuel and oxygen (O2) in the
air.
The simplest example of hydrocarbon fuel combustion is the
reaction of methane (CH4), the largest component of natural gas,
with O2 in the air.
When this reaction is balanced, or stoichiometric, each molecule
of methane reacts with two molecules of O2 producing 2one

When this occurs, energy is released as heat.

CH4 + 2O2 => CO2 + 2H2O
Reactants => Products + Heat
In actual combustion processes, other products are often formed.
A typical example of an actual combustion process is shown in
figure 3.1.
Fuel has reacted with air to produce the products shown on the
right.

Figure 3.1 Combustion Diagram

The combining of oxygen in the air and carbon in the fuel to form
carbon dioxide and generate heat is a complex process, requiring
the right mixing turbulence, sufficient activation temperature and
enough time for the reactants to come into contact and combine.
Unless combustion is properly controlled, high concentrations of
undesirable products can form.
Carbon monoxide (CO) and soot, for example, result from poor
fuel and air mixing or too little air.
Other undesirable products, such as nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2),
form in excessive amounts when the burner flame temperature is
too high.
If a fuel contains sulfur, sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas is formed.
For solid fuels such as coal and wood, ash forms from
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incombustible materials in the fuel.

General Principles of Combustion

Combustion process
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by
the production of heat, or heat and light.
Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence
of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth
making up 20.9% of our air.
Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat.
Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they will
burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into
gases.
Fuel gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present.
Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with
traces of other elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a
temperature reducing diluter that must be present to obtain the
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oxygen required for combustion.

Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from

the combustion of fuels and diluting the flue gases. This reduces
the heat available for transfer through the heat exchange
surfaces.
It also increases the volume of combustion by-products, which
then have to travel through the heat exchanger and up the stack
faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel-air mixture.
This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high
flame temperatures) to produce oxides of nitrogen (NO x), which
are toxic pollutants.
Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen
in the air to form carbon dioxide, water vapor and sulphur dioxide,
releasing 8,084 kcals, 28,922 kcals and 2,224 kcals of heat
respectively.
Under certain conditions, carbon may also combine with oxygen
to form carbon monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller
quantity of heat (2,430 kcals/kg of carbon).
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Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more heat per unit of fuel
than when CO or smoke are produced.

Three Ts of combustion
The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in
the fuel.
This is accomplished by controlling the "three T's" of combustion
which are (1) Temperature high enough to ignite and maintain
ignition of the fuel, (2) Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel
and oxygen, and (3) Time, sufficient for complete combustion.
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Figure 3.2 : Perfect, good and incomplete combustion.

Combustion equations
When combustion of fuel takes place, the constituents of fuel react
with oxygen.
The molecular mass of various constituents of fuel are given below :
Constituent
Molecular mass
C
12
02
32
H2
2
S
32
N2
28
The relation between kg mass and kg mole of a substance is given by:

mass
Number of moles = _____________________
molecular mass
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Hence 1Kg of H2 needs 8 Kg of O2 and makes 9 Kg of H2O.

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11

12

Mass fraction

13

Mole fraction

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Theoretical (Stoichiometric) Air

The minimum amount of air needed for the complete
combustion of a fuel is called the stoichiometric or theoretical air.
A combustion process is complete if all the carbon in the fuel
burns to CO2, all the hydrogen burns to H2O, and all the sulfur (if
any) burns to SO2.
That is, all the combustible components of a fuel are burned to
completion during a complete combustion process.
The ideal combustion process during which a fuel is burned
completely with stoichiometric air is called theoretical (or
stoichiometric) combustion.
Air Fuel Ratio
It is expressed on a mass basis and defined as:

Where N is the number of moles and M is the molar mass.

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Excess air
In practice, the combustion of fuel is never complete with the
theoretical amount of air because of imperfect mixing of fuel and
air. Mixture of fuel and air is never homogeneous.
So, to ensure the complete combustion of fuel- usually the actual
air supplied is more than the theoretical air required for complete
combustion of fuel.
The difference of actual air supplied and the theoretical or
stoichiometric air required for complete combustion of fuel is
called excess air.
In order to ensure complete combustion, combustion chambers
are fired with excess air.
Excess air increases the amount of oxygen and nitrogen entering
the flame increasing the probability that oxygen will find and react
with the fuel.
The addition of excess air also increases turbulence, which
increases mixing in the combustion chamber.
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Increased mixing of the air and fuel will further improve

combustion efficiency by giving these components a better chance
to react.
As more excess air enters the combustion chamber, more of the
fuel is burned until it finally reaches complete combustion.
Conversion of Gravimetric analysis to volumetric basis and
vice versa
If the composition of fuel is given on gravimetric (or weight)
basis it can be converted to volumetric (or mole) basis as follows.
Divide the weight of each constituents of the mixture by its
molecular weight.
This will give the relative volume (or mole) of each constituents.
Add all the relative volumes of the constituents then,
Individual (relative) volume of the constituents
x 100
Total volume of all the constituents
will give the %age by volume of each constituents in the fuel.
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If the volumetric composition of a fuel is given, it can be

converted to gravimetric (or weight) basis as follows.
Multiply the individual volume of each constituent by its
molecular weight.
This will give relative weight of each constituent.
Add all the relative weights of the constituents then
Individual weight of the constituents X 100
Total (relative) weights of the constituents
will give the %age by weight of each constituent in the fuel.
Combustion
CalculationCalculations
of the minimum amount of air for a fuel of
known composition.
Example 1
Calculate the minimum volume of air required to burn one Kg of
coal having the following composition by weight:
C = 72.4%, H2 5.3%, N2 = 1.81, O2 = 8.5%, moisture 7.2%
S = 0.9% and ash 3.9%
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On weight basis:
Taking 1kg coal as basis, weight of oxygen required to burn 1kg of coal
C + O2 CO2
0.724 x 32/12 = 1.93 kg
0.053x 16/2 = 0.424 kg
0.009x32/32 = 0.009 kg
Total O2 = 2.363 kg per kg of coal

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Example 2

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Example 3
A blast furnace gas has the following volumetric analysis H 2-9%, CO-24%, CH4
2%, CO2-6%, O2-3% and N2-56%. Determine the Ultimate gravimetric
analysis.
Given volumetric analysis, H2 9%, CO-24%, CH4 2%, CO2-6%, O2-3% and
N2-56%.
Solution: The volumetric analysis may be converted into gravimetric analysis by
completing the table as follows:

The volumetric analysis of flue gas components becomes:

CO-0.36, CH4 0.0173, CO2- 0.142, O2-0.0519 and N2-0.42

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***THE END***

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Group Assignment (10 Marks)

Describe in detail:
1) Flue gas analysis by Orsat apparatus
2) Fluidized bed combustion
3) Combustion system
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