FERROUS METALS AND

THEIR PROPERTIES

FERROUS METALS

Ferrous metals are those that

contain iron as the base
metal. The properties of
ferrous metals may be
changed by adding various
alloying elements.

FERROUS METALS

The chemical and mechanical

properties need to be combined
to produce a metal to serve a
specific purpose. The basic
ferrous metal form is pig iron.
Pig iron is produced in a blast
furnace that is charged with an
iron ore, coke, and limestone.

IRON (Fe)

chemical elementwith symbolFe(fromLatin:ferrum)

atomic number 26
a metal in the first transition series.
It is the fourth most commonelement in the Earth's crust.
Metallic ornative ironis rarely found on the surface of the
Earth because it tends to oxidize, but its oxides are
pervasive and represent the primary ores.
While it makes up about 5% of theEarth's crust, both the
Earth'sinner andouter coreare believed to consist largely
of an iron-nickelalloy constituting 35% of the mass of the
Earth as a whole.
Iron is consequently the most abundant element on Earth,
but only the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's
crust, afteroxygen,silicon, andaluminium.

IRON (Fe)

IRON (Fe)

FERROUS MINERALS

The four principal iron ores are

hematite,
limonite
magnetite
taconite.

HEMATITE

Gray hematite is typically found in places that can

have still standing water or mineralhot springs.

LIMONITE
named from theGreekword for meadow in
allusion to its occurrence asbog iron
oreinmeadowsandmarshes.

In its brown form it is sometimes calledbrown

hematiteorbrown iron ore. In its bright yellow
form it is sometimes called lemon rockoryellow
iron ore.

MAGNETITE

Magnetite is ferrimagnetic; it is attracted to amagnetand

can bemagnetized to become apermanent magnetitself.
It is the mostmagneticof all the naturally-occurring minerals
on Earth.

Magnetite is sometimes found in large quantities in beach

sand. Suchblack sands(mineral sands or iron sands).

TACONITE.

a
variety
ofiron
formation,
aniron-bearing
(>15%
iron)sedimentary rock, in which the iron minerals are
interlayered withquartz,chert, orcarbonate.
To process taconite, the ore is ground into a fine powder, the
magnetite is separated from thegangueby strong magnets, and
the powdered iron concentrate is combined with a binder such
asbentoniteclay and limestone as aflux. As a last step, it is
rolled into pellets about one centimeter in diameter that contain
approximately 65% iron. The pellets are fired at a very high
temperatures to harden them and make them durable.

MAGNETISM

Magnetismis a class of physical

phenomena
that
are
mediated
bymagnetic
fields.Electric
currentsand
themagnetic
momentsof elementary particles give
rise to a magnetic field, which acts on
other
currents
and
magnetic
moments. Every material is influenced
to some extent by a magnetic field.

MAGNETISM

MAGNETISM

Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the

tendency of a material to oppose an applied
magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a
magnetic field.
Paramagnetism. In a paramagnetic material
there areunpaired electrons,
i.e.atomicormolecular orbitalswith exactly one
electron in them. an unpaired electron is free to
align its magnetic moment in any direction. When
an external magnetic field is applied, these
magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in
the same direction as the applied field, thus
reinforcing it.

MAGNETISM

Ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance,
has unpaired electrons. However, inadditionto
the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's
tendency to be parallel to anapplied field, there
is also in these materials a tendency for these
magnetic moments to orient parallel toeach
otherto maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus,
even in the absence of an applied field, the
magnetic moments of the electrons in the
material spontaneously line up parallel to one
another.

MAGNETISM

Ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance,
has unpaired electrons. However, inadditionto
the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's
tendency to be parallel to anapplied field, there
is also in these materials a tendency for these
magnetic moments to orient parallel toeach
other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus,
even in the absence of an applied field, the
magnetic moments of the electrons in the
material spontaneously line up parallel to one
another.

MAGNETISM

Antiferromagnetism
In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet,
there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic
moments of neighboring valence electrons to
point inoppositedirections.

Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic

moment, meaning no field is produced by them.

MAGNETISM

Ferrimagnetism

Like ferromagnetism,ferrimagnetsretain their

magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like
antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins like to
point in opposite directions. These two properties are not
contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical
arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the
sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from
the sublattice that points in the opposite direction.

MAGNETISM IN MINERALS

Ferromagnetismis the basic mechanism by which

certain materials (such asiron) formpermanent
magnets, or are attracted tomagnets. Inphysics,
several different types ofmagnetismare distinguished.
Ferromagnetism (includingferrimagnetism)is the
strongest type: it is the only one that typically creates
forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for
the common phenomena of magnetism in magnets
encountered in everyday life. Substances respond
weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of
magnetism, paramagnetism,diamagnetism,
andantiferromagnetism, but the forces are usually so
weak that they can only be detected by sensitive
instruments in a laboratory.

Ferrous Metals

These are metals

and alloys that
contain a high
proportion of the
element

IRON

IRON

FERROUS MATERIALS AND THEIR

PROPERTIES

THE
ELEMENT

IRO

IRON

Pronounced as "iorn" instead of "iron

is cognate to the GermanEisen
In Gothic, it waseisarn
in Old High German,isan
In Greek, sderos
In Latin, ferrum

PHYSICAL & MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF IRON

Color: Silver-gray Metal

Malleable
Ductility
Luster
Conductivity: Good transmission of heat
or electricity
Tensile: It can be stretched without
breakig
Ferromagnetic: Easily magnetized

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF IRON

From iron ore impure form of metal

Pig iron

It is the pig iron which further yields

Ferrous metals

Pig iron is not suitable for any

mechanical use unless it is converted
into cast iron, wrought iron or steel

Iron as an Engineering
Material

is best known as the metal that gave us

weapons and tools, and whose ability by means
of alloys and heat treatment to suit itself to
every application makes it the primary metal of
technology.

Iron is the most frequently encountered metal

in daily life, always in the form of manufactured
objects, and usually covered with a protective
coating or buried deep within the object.

Iron as an Engineering
Material

Iron is an excellent and versatile material of

construction--strong, tough, easily formed and
worked, and, very importantly, cheap compared
to the alternatives.

Plastics give it competition, especially in products

that must be manufactured at the lowest cost
where strength and durability are not the primary
concerns, such as modern American automobiles.

Aluminum is a strong competitor where weight is

a concern, as in aircraft.

Iron as an Engineering
Material
APPLICATIONS:
Concrete structures contain essential
reinforcing iron;
Electrical machines, including
transformers, depend on iron.
Automobiles are mainly iron;
"tin" cans are iron covered with thin
coatings of tin or lacquer;
Fasteners, such as the nails and screws
used in wooden construction, are usually
iron.

Iron as an Engineering
Material

The shortcomings of iron are its weight, and its

propensity to rust.

Both aluminium and plastics avoid these

shortcomings,
-their densities are much less than that of iron
-aluminium is protected by an adherent layer
of oxide
-plastics by the inertness of the substance.

The advantages of iron are so great, however,

that these considerations prevail only in limited
fields of application.

WROUGHT IRON

Wrought Iron
Is one of the ferrous metals that is an alloy that is
almost pure iron.

Is an iron alloy with very low carbon content with

respect to cast iron.

Wrought Iron Is Tough, Malleable, Ductile And
EasilyWelded.

HISTORY (Ancient Period)

Wrought iron has been used for
many centuries, and is the "iron"
that is referred to throughout
western history.
Ironwork date back to ancient
Egypt and Mesopotamia as far
back as around 3500 B.C.

HISTORY (Medieval Period)

16th century: Ironwork
became sophisticated and
high decorative,
throughout the elaborate
cathedrals of Spain to
balconies, patios and
gateways of France.

Notre dame
ST.PETERSBURG
PALACE

18th century led to

beautiful railings and
gates
throughout London.

lamps

Roof cresting

HISTORY (Early Period)

The raw material
wrought iron gradually
disappeared, until the
last ironworks ceased
production in the
1970's.

NOW (21TH CENTURY)

The wrought
is replaced to
a very great
extent by
mild steel.

In fencing

In main entrance gates

In railings

As balusters

PROPERTIES
It becomes soft at white heat and it can be
easily forged and welded.
It can be used to form temporary magnets
but cannot be magnetised permanently.
It fuses with difficulty .
It cannot be adopted for making castings.
high elasticity and tensile strength
It is moderately elastic ,ductile, malleable
and tough.
Unaffected by saline water.
If pulled apart, the fracture shows a fibrous
break.

QUALITY

Its ability to RESIST CORROSION and fatigue failure.

The slag fibers in wrought iron are present in such
great numbers that they serve in one capacity as an
effective mechanical barrier against corrosion.
DUCTILITY -its ability to be drawn out.
MALLEABILITY -its ability to be hammered into
shapes.
DURABILITY and ELEGANCE,
LOW MAINTAINANCE-Wrought iron is also easy to
maintain and is low in maintenance.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Element

Content (%)

Iron (Fe)

99-99.8

Carbon (C)

0.05-0.25

Phosphorus (P)

0.05-0.2

Silicon (Si)

0.02-0.2

Sulfur (S)

0.2-0.1

Manganese (Mn)

0.01-0.1

Physical properties:

BLOOMERY PROCESS
1100 -1500

charged withcharcoaland iron ore and then lit.

Air was blown in through atuyereto heat the bloomery to a

temperature somewhat below the melting point of iron.

slag would melt and run out, andcarbon monoxidefrom

the charcoal would reduce the ore to iron

iron in the solid state

bloomery was allowed to become hot enough to melt
the iron, carbon would dissolve into it and form pig or
cast iron
After smelting was complete, the bloom was
removed, and the process could then be started
again

FINERY PROCESS
In the 15th century, the blast furnace spread
inBelgiumand it was improved further.

After the bloomery process

They re-melted the pig iron and burnt out the

carbon, producing a bloom, which was then
forged into a bar iron

PUDDLING PROCESS
A number of processes for making wrought iron without charcoal were
devised as theIndustrial Revolutionbegan during the latter half of the
18th century. The most successful of these was puddling, using a
puddling furnace..
This metal was placed into the hearth of the
puddling furnace where it was melted.
The hearth was lined with oxidizing agents such
ashematite and iron oxide. This mixture is subjected to
a strong current of air and stirred with long bars, called
puddling bars

The air, stirring, and "boiling" action of the metal help the
oxidizing agents to oxidize the impurities and carbon out
of the pig iron to their maximum capability

ASTON PROCESS
In 1925, James Aston of theUnited Statesdeveloped a process for
manufacturing wrought iron quickly and economically.
It involves taking molten steel from
aBessemer converterand pouring it into
cooler liquid slag.
The molten steel contains a large amount of dissolved
gases. so when the liquid steel hits the cooler surfaces of the
liquid slag the gases are liberated.
The molten steel then freezes to yield a spongy mass
having a temperature of about 1370C.
This spongy mass must then be finished
by being shingledandrolled.

SHINGLING
There is still some slag left in the puddle balls, so while they are
still hot they must be shingledto remove the remaining slag
and cinder.It may be achieved by forging the balls under a
power hammer, or by squeezing the bloom in a machine. The
material obtained at the end of shingling is known as bloom and
it is still red-hot.The blooms are not useful in this form, so they
must be rolled into a final product.

Rolling
The bloom is passed through grooved rollers and flat bars were
produced. These bars of wrought iron were of poor quality, called
muck barsor puddle bars.To improve the quality of wrought iron,
these bars were cut up, piled and tied together by wires, a process
known asfaggotingor piling.They were then reheated and rolled
again in merchant rolls. This process may be repeated several
times to get wrought iron of desired quality. Wrought iron that has
been rolled multiple times is called merchant bar or merchant iron

Advantages and
disadvantages
ADVANTAGES :(1) It welds better than does steel,
(2) lasts longer when exposed to weather or to water,
(3) It is better to resist shock and vibration (fatigue),
in use,
(4) Its fibrous structure arrests fracture, as its
breaking is in the nature of a gradual tearing, which
often gives warning of a dangerous stress, while
steel breaks suddenly.
DISADVANTAGES
(1) Its elastic and tensile strength are lower than
those of steel,
(2) Its production is more costly.

PROBLEMS AND DETERIORATION

NATURAL OR INHERENT PROBLEMS

Chemical corrosion can attack decorative and
structural wrought iron features in several ways:
1. Uniform Attack: Corrosion attacks the metal surface
evenly.
2. Pitting: Attacks the metal surface in selected areas.
3. Selective Attack: When a metal is not homogenous
throughout, certain areas may be attacked in preference to
others.

Uniform attac
Pitting attack

4. Stress corrosion cracking: Attacks areas in a metal which

were stressed during metal working and were later exposed to
a corrosive environment.
5. Rust: It occurs when unprotected metal is exposed to
oxygen in the atmosphere in the presence of moisture.

6. Galvanic (or Electro-Chemical) Corrosion: Galvanic

corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact
with one another and an electrolyte.

Rust
Selective attack

Galvanic corrosion

VANDALISM OR HUMAN-INDUCED
PROBLEMS
Mechanical or physical deterioration:

1. Fatigue: Failure of metal that has been repeatedly stressed beyond its elastic
limit.
a. Wrought iron is generally fatigue resistant because it is so tough. It will
deform considerably,
within its elastic limit, without failure.
b. Even if past overloading has caused deformation, wrought iron fixings will
usually continue
to function.
c. Defects in the wrought iron itself, or stress points cancause a feature to
fracture.
2. Heat: Usually in the form of fire, will cause wrought iron features to become
plastic, distort, and fail.
3. Distortion: Permanent deformation or failure may occur when a metal is
overloaded beyond its yield point because of increased live or dead loads, thermal
stresses, or structural modifications altering a stress regime

PROBLEMS DUE TO ITS CONSTITUENTS

REDSHORT It contains sulfur in excess quantity.
It makes the iron brittle due to formation of iron sulphide.
It has sufficient tenacity when cold, but cracks when bent or finished
at a red heat. It is therefore useless for welding or forging.

COLDSHORT-It contains excessive phosphorus.

It is very brittle when it is cold. It cracks if bent.
It may, however, be worked at high temperature. Historically,
coldshort iron was considered good enough fornails.

DEFECTS

CORROSION

INCLUSIONS

CRACKS

RUSTING

PROCESS OF MAKING DESIGNS

WROUGHT IRON SECTIONS

USES OF WROUGHT IRON

HOME DCOR ITEMS

Balconies

Baker's racks

Candle holders
wine racks
Lamp

Beds

Gates

Table
bases

EXTERNAL USE

RIVET

Nail

Chains

Wire

Horseshoes

Pipes

Handrails

WEAPONARY USE OF WROUGHT IRON

USES OF WROUGHT IRON IN A HOUSE:

WROUGHT IRON FLOOR VENT

KITCHEN HANDLES
AND DOOR KNOBS

BALUSTERS

RAILINGS
INTERIOR FURNITURE

WINDOW
GRILLS

FRONT PORCH WHITE WITH IRON RAILS

IRON PILLAR
Iron pillarat Delhi, India, containing
98% wrought iron.
Analysis ofthe Iron Pillar of
Delhigives 0.10% in the slags for .
18% in the iron itself, for a total P
content of 0.28% in the metal and
accounts for much of its corrosion
resistance.

EIFFEL TOWER
TheEiffel toweris constructed from
puddled iron, a form of wrought iron.

Structure of the Eiffel Tower

weighs 7,300 tonnes.

FERROUS METALLURGY
STEEL

Steel
0.001% to 1.5% carbon
Wide range of properties due to:
Variation in carbon content
Cold working
Heat treatment
Addition of alloying elements

Low Carbon Steel

Medium Carbon Steel

High Carbon Steel

Microstructure of Steel
Five main constituents:
Ferrite
Austenite
Cementite
Pearlite
Martensite

Ferrite
The structure of pure iron.
Has a body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal
structure. It is soft and ductile and
imparts these properties to the steel.
Very little carbon (less than 0.01% carbon
will dissolve in ferrite at room
temperature). Often known as iron.

A photomicrograph of
0.1% carbon steel
(mild steel). The light
areas are ferrite.

Austenite
This is the structure of iron at high
temperatures (over 912 deg C).
Has a face-centre cubic (FCC) crystal
structure. This material is important in
that it is the structure from which other
structures are formed when the material
cools from elevated temperatures. Often
known as iron. Not present at room
temperatures.

Cementite
A compound of iron and carbon, iron
carbide (Fe3C).
It is hard and brittle and its presence in
steels causes an increase in hardness and
a reduction in ductility and toughness.

Pearlite
A laminated structure formed of alternate
layers of ferrite and cementite.
It combines the hardness and strength of
cementite with the ductility of ferrite and
is the key to the wide range of the
properties of steels. The laminar
structure also acts as a barrier to crack
movement as in composites. This gives it
toughness.

Two-dimensional
view of pearlite,
consisting of
alternating layers
of cementite and
ferrite.

Three-dimensional
analogy to the
structure of
pearlite, i.e. the
cabbage
represents a single
crystal of pearlite,
and the water in
the bucket the
single crystal of
ferrite.

Martensite
A very hard needle-like structure of iron and
carbon.
Only formed by very rapid cooling from
the austenitic structure (i.e. above upper
critical temperature). Needs to be
modified by tempering before acceptable
properties reached.

The needle-like
structure of
martensite, the
white areas are
retained
austenite.

Carbon
In steels none of the carbon is present as
free carbon. It is all dissolved in the iron
as part of the previously described
structures.

0.1% Carbon Steel

Note the small
amount of pearlite in
the structure

Effect of Carbon Content

Increasing the carbon content decreases
the amount of ferrite and increases the
proportion of pearlite in the structure.

0.2% Carbon Steel

Note the increased

amount of pearlite
compared with the 0.1%
dead mild steel

Eutectic Structure
This leads to an increase in strength and
hardness and a reduction in ductility.
This continues until there is 0.8% carbon
at which point the structure is 100%
pearlite. This is known as a eutectic
structure.

Over 0.8% Carbon

As carbon content increases beyond
0.8%, no more pearlite can be formed.
The excess carbon forms cementite which
is deposited in between the pearlite
grains. This increases the hardness, but
slightly reduces the strength. The
ductility of all plain carbon steels over
0.8% carbon is very low.

Properties of Carbon
Steels
Carbon content
wt %

Properties

Applications

0.01 - 0.1

Soft, ductile, no useful

hardening by heat
treatment except by
normalizing, but can be
work-hardened. Weldable.

Pressings where high

formability required

0.1 - 0.25

Strong, ductile, no useful

hardening by heat
treatment except by
normalizing, but can be
work-hardened. Weldable.
Ductile-brittle transition
temperature is just below
room temperature

General engineering uses

for a mild steel

0.25 - 0.6

Very strong, heat treatable to

produce a wide range of
properties in quenched and
tempered conditions.
Difficult to weld. Can
become brittle below room
temperature.

Bars and forgings for a

wide range of
engineering
components.
Connecting rods,
springs, hammers,
axle shafts requiring
strength and

Properties of Carbon
Steels
Carbon content
wt %

Properties

Applications

0.6 - 0.9

Strong, whether heat treated

or not. Ductility lower when
less carbon is present

Used where maximum

strength rather than
toughness is
important. Tools,
wear resisting
components ( piano
wire and silver steels
are in this group).

0.9 - 2.0

Wear resistant and can be

made very hard at expense
of toughness and ductility.
Cannot be welded. Tend to
be brittle if the structure is
not carefully controlled

Cutting tools like wood

chisels, files, saw
blades.

Properties of alloys Steels