Introduction to

Descriptive Anatomy

Anatomy
Definition:
Anatomy (gross/macroscopic) the study of structures
that can be seen without using a microscopic.
Microscopic anatomy, also called 'histology', is the
study of cells and tissues using a microscope.

Approaches
Systemic, regional or clinical anatomy.
Systemic anatomy : organized by organ systems,
such as the respiratory, digestive, or reproductive
systems, which relates structure to function.
Regional anatomy : based on regions and deals
with structural relationships among the parts of the
body such as the thorax and abdomen, emphasizing
the relationships among various systemic structures
such as muscles, nerves, and blood vessels.

 Clinical anatomy: emphasizes the practical

application of anatomic knowledge to the solution of
clinical problems.

Understanding of planes of reference is vital to the

effective study of both basic and clinical anatomy

Orientation
Horizontal sections (slices) are cut perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis, from one side to the other (e.g.,
through both eyes).

Sagittal sections are cut parallel to the longitudinal

axis but perpendicular to the face. A midsagittal
section thus divides the central nervous system into two
symmetrical halves, whereas a parasagittal section is
a similar cut taken slightly lateral to the midline.

Coronal sections are cut either parallel to the

longitudinal axis between the ventral and dorsal
surface or perpendicular to the sagittal plane between
the ventral and dorsal surfaces. The hemispheres are
roughly symmetrical in a coronal
representation.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeletal System
The skeleton of the body is composed of bones and
cartilages and has two main parts:
-The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the head
(cranium), neck (cervical vertebrae), and trunk (ribs,
sternum, vertebrae, and sacrum).
- The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of
the limbs, including the clavicle, scapula and pelvic
bone.

Bones
Highly specialized, hard form of connective tissue
that makes up most of the skeleton and is the chief
supporting tissue of the body.
Bones provide
Protection for vital structures.
Support for the body.
The mechanical basis for movement.
Storage for salts (e.g., calcium).
A continuous supply of new blood cells (produced by
the marrow within many bones).

Cartilage
A resilient, semirigid, avascular form of connective
tissue that forms parts of the skeleton where more
flexibility is necessary (e.g., the costal cartilages that
attach the ribs to the sternum).
The articulating surfaces of bones participating in a
synovial joint are capped with articular cartilage,
which provides smooth, low-friction gliding surfaces
for free movement of the articulating bones.
It is avascular and is, therefore, nourished by
diffusion.

Bones
There are two types of bone: compact and spongy
(trabecular or cancellous).
The differences between these types of bone depend
on the relative amount of solid matter and the
number and size of the spaces they contain.
All bones have a superficial thin layer of compact
bone around a central mass of spongy bone, except
where the latter is replaced by a medullary (marrow)
cavity.

Classification of Bones
Bones are classified according to their shape:
Long bones are tubular structures (e.g., humerus in
the arm; phalanges in the fingers).
Short bones are cuboidal and are found only in the
ankle (tarsus) and wrist (carpus).
Flat bones usually serve protective functions (e.g.,
those of the cranium protect the brain).

 Irregular bones, such as those in the face, have

various shapes other than long, short, or flat.
Sesamoid bones (e.g., patella, or kneecap) develop in
certain tendons. These bones protect the tendons from
excessive wear and often change the angle of the
tendons as they pass to their attachments.

Bone Markings
Bone markings appear wherever tendons, ligaments,
and fascia are attached or where arteries lie adjacent
to or enter bones.
Some markings and features of bones are as follows:
Condyle: rounded articular area (e.g., condyles of the
femur).
Crest: ridge of bone (e.g., iliac crest).
Process: projecting spine-like part (e.g., spinous
process of a vertebra).

 Facet: smooth flat area, usually covered with

cartilage, where a bone articulates with another bone
(e.g., articular facets of a vertebra).
Foramen: passage through a bone (e.g., obturator
foramen).
Fossa: hollow or depressed area (e.g., infraspinous
fossa of the scapula).
Line: linear elevation (e.g., soleal line of the tibia).
Spine: thorn-like process (e.g., spine of the scapula).

 Protuberance: projection of bone (e.g., external

occipital protuberance of the cranium).

Trochanter: large blunt elevation (e.g., greater

trochanter of the femur).
Malleolus: rounded prominence (e.g., lateral malleolus
of the fibula).
Notch: indentation at the edge of a bone (e.g., greater
sciatic notch in the posterior border of the hip bone).
Epicondyle: eminence superior to a condyle (e.g.,

Classification of Joints
The three types of joints (fibrous, cartilaginous, and
synovial) are classified according to the manner or
type of material by which the articulating bones are
united:
The articulating bones of fibrous joints are united by
fibrous tissue.
The amount of movement occurring at a fibrous joint
depends in most cases on the length of the fibers
uniting the articular bones.

 A syndesmosis type of fibrous joint unites the bones

with a sheet of fibrous tissue, either a ligament or
fibrous membrane. Consequently, this type of joint is
partially movable.
A gomphosis (dentoalveolar syndesmosis) is a type
of fibrous joint in which a peg-like fibrous process
stabilizes a tooth and provides proprioceptive
information (e.g., about how hard we are chewing or
clenching our teeth).

 The articulating structures of cartilaginous joints are

united by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.
Primary cartilaginous joints (synchondroses) are
united by hyaline cartilage.
These joints permit growth of the length of the bone
and allow slight bending during early life, until the
epiphysial plate converts to bone and the epiphyses fuse
with the diaphysis.
Secondary cartilaginous joints (symphyses) are
strong, slightly mobile joints, united by fibrocartilage.

 The articular cavity of synovial joints is a potential

space that contains a small amount of synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid serves the dual function of nourishing
the articular cartilage and lubricating the joint surfaces.
Synovial joints, the most common type of joint, are
usually reinforced by accessory ligaments that are
either separate (extrinsic) or are a thickened part of the
joint capsule (intrinsic).
Some synovial joints have other distinguishing features,
such as whether the articulating surfaces of the bones are
incongruous.