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Photodetectors
Content
Physical Principles of Photodiodes
pin, APD
Photodetectors characteristics (Quantum efficiency,
Responsivity, S/N)
Noise in Photodetector Circuits
Photodiode Response Time
Photodiodes structures
Photodetectors
Photodetectors
Optical signal generally is weakened and distorted when it
emerges from the end of the fiber, the photodetector must
meet following strict performance requirements.
A high sensitivity to the emission wavelength range of the
received light signal
A minimum addition of noise to the signal
A fast response speed to handle the desired data rate
Be insensitive to temperature variations
Be compatible with the physical dimensions of the fiber
Have a Reasonable cost compared to other system components
Have a long operating lifetime
Photodetectors
Some important parameters while discussing photodetectors:
Quantum Efficiency
It is the ratio of primary electron-hole pairs created by incident
photon to the photon incident on the diode material.
Detector Responsivity
*This is the ratio of output current to input optical power.
Hence this is the efficiency of the device.
Spectral Response Range
This is the range of wavelengths over which the device
will operate.
Noise Characteristics
The level of noise produced in the device is critical to its
operation at low levels of input light.
Response Time
This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond
to variations in the input light intensity.
Photodetectors
PN Photodiode
PIN Photodiode
Avalanche Photodiode
PIN photodiode
Photodetectors
Photodetector materials
Operating Wavelength Ranges for Several Different Photodetector Materials
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
SiO2
Electrode
AR
Electrode
coating
W
net
ph
h +
h v > Eg
eN
Depletion
region
battery.
eN
a
E
(x )
max
out
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
A generic photodiode.
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
Photodetectors
RAMOs
Theorem and External Photocurrent
An EHP is photogenerated at x = l. The electron and the hole drift in opposite directions with drift velocities vh
and ve.
The electron arrives at timeVtelectron = (L-l )/ve and the hole arrives at time thole = l/vh.
Iphoto(t)
e vh
L
e v h e ve
L
L
iphoto(t)
Semiconductor
h+
telectron
velectron
vhole
thole
L l
l
l
Area=Charge=e
t
0
e v h /L
e v e /L
x
h+
i(t)
ielectron(t)
telectron
thole
photocurrent
thole
ihole(t)
t
Photodetectors
RAMOs
Theorem and External Photocurrent
As the electron and hole drift, each generates ielectron(t) and ihole(t).
The total photocurrent is the sum of hole and electron photocurrents each lasting a duration th and
respectively.
te t
L l
ve
and
th t
l
vh
Transit time
Work done e E dx V ie t dt
ie t
e ve
; t te
L
ih t
e vh
; t th
L
te
th
te
Qcollected ie t dt ih t dt e
V
L
ve
dx
dt
Photocurrent
If a charge qis being drifted with a velocity vd(t) by a field between two biased electrodes separated
by L, the motion of q generates an external current
given by
e vd t
i (t )
; t t transit
L
Ramos Theorem
Photodetectors
1.24
g [ m]
E g [eV ]
Incident photons become absorbed as they travel in the semiconductor and light intensity decays
exponentially with distance into the semiconductor.
I ( x ) I 0 e x
Absorption coefficient
24
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
SiO2
Electrode
E(x)
Electrode
p+
built-in-field is uniform
iSi
E0
n+
net
eN
h > Eg
+ e
x
Iph
eN a
Vr
Vout
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
A reverse biased pin photodiode is illuminated with a short wavelength photon that is absorbed very near the surface.
The photogenerated electron has to diffuse to the depletion region where it is swept into the i- layer and drifted across.
i Si
Diffusion
h > E
Drift
Vr
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
pindiode
(a)Thestructure;
(b)equilibriumenergybanddiagram;
(c)energybanddiagramunderreversebias.
pin Photodetector
The high electric field present in the depletion region causes photo-generated carriers to
Separate and be collected across the reverse biased junction. This give rise to a current
Flow in an external circuit, known as photocurrent.
and Lp = Dp p
Photo current
As a photon flux penetrates through the semiconductor, it will
be absorbed.
If Pin is the optical power falling on the photo detector at x=0
and P(x) is the power level at a distance x into the material
then the incremental change be given as
dP x s P x dx
where s() is the photon absorption coefficient at a
wavelength . So that
P x Pin exp s x
Photocurrent
P( x) Pin (1 e
s ( ) x
1.24
c ( m )
E g (eV)
[6-1]
[6-2]
(1 R f ) P( w) Pin (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f )
Absorption Coefficient
Absorption
coefficient is a
material property.
Most of the
photon absorption
(63%) occurs over
a distance 1/ (it
is called
penetration
depth )
1108
Ge
1107
0.9
0.8
0.7
In0.7Ga0.3As0.64P0.36
In0.53Ga0.47As
Si
1106
GaAs
(m-1)
InP
1105
a-Si:H
1104
1103
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Wavelength ( m)
Absorption43
coefficient ( ) vs. wavelength ( ) for various semiconductors
(Data selectively collected and combined from various sources.)
Photodetectors
Absorption
Coefficient and Photodiode Materials
Absorption
5 4
0.9
0.8
0.7
1 10
Ge
1 10
1 10
In0.7Ga0.3As0.64P0.36
In0.53Ga0.47As
Si
-1
Absorption Coefficient (m )
GaAs
InP
1 10
a-Si:H
1 10
1 10
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Wavelength (mm)
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Absorption Coefficient
Direct bandgap semiconductors
(GaAs, InAs, InP, GaSb, InGaAs,
GaAsSb), the photon absorption
does not require assistant from
lattice vibrations. The photon is
absorbed and the electron is
excited directly from the VB to CB
without a change in its k-vector
(crystal momentum k), since
photon momentum is very small.
k CB k VB
E
CB
Ec
Direct
Bandgap
Eg
Photon
Ev
VB
Absorption coefficient for direct bandgap semiconductors rise sharply with decreasing wavelength from g
(GaAs and InP).
46
Absorption Coefficient
E
Indirect bandgap
CB
semiconductors
(Si and Ge),
the photon absorption
Indirect Bandgap, E
Ec
CB
requires
from
lattice
Direct Bandgap assistant
Eg
Photon
Ec
Photon
E v (phonon). If K is
vibrations
Ev
wave vectorVB of lattice wave,
VB
Phonon
then
K represents the
k
k
k
k
momentum associated with
(a) GaAs (Direct bandgap)
(b) Si (Indirect bandgap)
lattice vibration K is a
phonon
momentum.
k
phonon momentum K
CB
VB
(a) Photon absorption in a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) Photon absorption
Thus the probability of photon absorption is not as high as in a direct transition and the g is not as sharp as
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
for direct bandgap semiconductors.
47
Photodetectors
Absorption Coefficient and Photodiode Materials
Photon absorption in
Photon absorption in
CB
Indirect Bandgap
EC
CB
Eg
Direct Bandgap
Photon
Eg
EC
EV
Photon
EV
VB
VB
Phonons
k
Responsivity
q
Ip
Pin (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f )
h
[6-3]
Quantum Efficiency:
Pin / h
[6-4]
Responsivity:
IP
q
Pin
h
[A/W]
[6-5]
Photodetectors
C dep
0 r A
Vr Vr
E E0
W W
Response time
t drift
vd
v d d E
The speed of pin photodiodes are invariably limited by the transit time of photogenerated carriers across the i-Si layer.
For i-Si layer of width 10 m, the drift time is about is about 0.1 nsec.
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
Drift velocity vs. electric field for holes and electrons in Silicon.
10
Electron
1
Driftvelocity(msec )
10
10
10
Hole
10
10
1
Electricfield(Vm )
10
10
Example
Bandgapandphotodetection
(a)Determinethemaximumvalueoftheenergygapwhichasemiconductor,usedasaphotoconductor,canhaveifitistobesensitivetoyellowlight
(600nm).
2
2
2
(b)Aphotodetectorwhoseareais510 cm isirradiatedwithyellowlightwhoseintensityis20mWcm .Assumingthateachphotongenerates
oneelectronholepair,calculatethenumberofpairsgeneratedpersecond.
Solution
(a)
(b)
Given,=600nm,weneedEph=h=Egsothat,
34
8
1
9
Eg=hc/ =(6.62610 Js)(310 ms )/(60010 m)=2.07eV
2 2
3
2
Area=510 cm andIlight=2010 W/cm .
Thereceivedpoweris
2 2
3
2
3
P=Area Ilight=(510 cm )(2010 W/cm )=10 W
Nph=numberofphotonsarrivingpersecond=P/Eph
3
19
=(10 W)/(2.0596021810 J/eV)
1
=2.9787 photonss
=2.9787 EHPs .
Example
BandgapandPhotodetection
(c)FromtheknownenergygapofthesemiconductorGaAs(Eg=1.42eV),calculatetheprimarywavelengthofphotonsemittedfromthiscrystalasa
resultofelectronholerecombination.Isthiswavelengthinthevisible?
(d)WillasiliconphotodetectorbesensitivetotheradiationfromaGaAslaser?Why?
Solution
(c)ForGaAs,Eg=1.42eVandthecorrespondingwavelengthis
=hc/Eg=(6.62610
34
8
1
19
Js)(310 ms )(1.42eV610 J/eV)
=873nm(invisibleIR)
ThewavelengthofemittedradiationduetoEHPrecombinationis873nm.
(d)
ForSi,Eg=1.1eVandthecorrespondingcutoffwavelengthis,
g=hc/Eg=(6.62610
34
8
1
19
Js)(310 ms )(1.1eV610 J/eV)
=1120nm
Sincethe873nmwavelengthisshorterthanthecutoffwavelengthof1120nm,theSiphotodetectorcandetectthe873nmradiation(Put
differently,thephotonenergycorrespondingto873nm,1.42eV,islargerthantheEg,1.1eV,ofSiwhichmeanthattheSiphotodetectorcan
indeeddetectthe873nmradiation)
Example
Absorption coefficient
(a)
If d is the thickness of a photodetector material, Io is the intensity of the incoming radiation, the number of photons absorbed per unit volume of
sample is
n ph
I 0 1 exp( d )
d h
Solution
(a)IfI0istheintensityofincomingradiation(energyflowingperunitareapersecond),I0exp( d)isthetransmittedintensitythroughthe
specimenwiththicknessdandthusI0exp( d)istheabsorbedintensity
Example
(b) What is the thickness of a Ge and In0.53Ga0.47As crystal layer that is needed for absorbing 90% of the incident radiation at 1.5 m?
5 1
ForGe, 5.2 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
5 1
ForIn0.53Ga0.47As, 7.5 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
(b)
5 1
ForGe, 5.2 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
1 exp( d ) 0.9
1
1
1
1
6
d ln
ln
4
.
428
10
m 4.428 m
5
1 0.9 5.2 10 1 0.9
5 1
ForIn0.53Ga0.47As, 7.5 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
1
1
6
ln
3
.
07
10
m 3.07 m
5
7.5 10 1 0.9
Example
InGaAspinPhotodiodes
ConsideracommercialInGaAspinphotodiodewhoseresponsivityisshowninfig.Itsdarkcurrentis5nA.
Whatopticalpoweratawavelengthof1.55mwouldgiveaphotocurrentthatistwicethedarkcurrent?WhatistheQEofthe
photodetectorat1.55m?
Whatwouldbethephotocurrentiftheincidentpowerinawasat1.3m?WhatistheQEat1.3moperation?
Responsivity(A/W)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
800
1000
1200
1400
Wavelength(nm)
1600
1800
Solution
(a)
6
At =1.5510 m,fromtheresponsivityvs.wavelengthcurvewehaveR0.87A/W.Fromthedefinitionof
responsivity,
I ph
Photocurrent ( A)
R
2 I dark 2 5 10 9 ( A)
P0
11.5 nW
R
R
0.87 A / W )
I ph
Fromthedefinitionsofquantumefficiencyandresponsivity,
e
e
h
hc
0.70 (70 %)
19
6
e
(1.6 10 coul )(1.55 10 m )
1
1
1
1
Notethefollowingdimensionalidentities:A=Cs andW=Js sothatAW =CJ .Thus,responsivityintermsofphotocurrentperunitincident
opticalpowerisalsochargecollectedperunitincidentenergy.
Solution
(b)
6
At =1.310 m,fromtheresponsivityvs.wavelengthcurve,R =0.82A/W.
SincePoisthesameand11.5nWasin(a),
TheQEat =1.3mis
0.78 (78 %)
19
6
e
(1.6 10 coul )(1.3 10 m )
Photodetectors
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
Electrode
SiO2
Antireflectioncoating
n
p
Avalanchebreakdown
Substrate
Substrate
Electrode
Electrode
Guardring
Optical radiation
Reach-Through APD structure (RAPD)
showing the electric fields in depletion
region and multiplication region.
Photodetectors
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
Iphoto
SiO2
Electrode
h > Eg
h+
n+ p
p+
Electrode
net
Avalancheregion
E c
E v
E ( x)
x
Absorption
region
Avalanche region
Avalanche Photodiodes
Ionization rate
The average number of electron-hole pairs created by a carrier
per unit distance traveled is called the ionization rate.
Most materials exhibit different electron ionization rates and
hole ionization rates .
Responsivity of APD
The multiplication factor (current gain) M for all carriers generated in the
photodiode is defined as:
IM
M
Ip
[6-6]
Where I M is the average value of the total multiplied output current & I P
is the primary photocurrent.
APD
M 0 M
h
[6-7]
Detection of weak optical signal requires that the photodetector and its
following amplification circuitry be optimized for a desired signal-to-noise
ratio.
It is the noise current which determines the minimum optical power level
that can be detected. This minimum detectable optical power defines the
sensitivity of photodetector. That is the optical power that generates a
photocurrent with the amplitude equal to that of the total noise current
(S/N=1)
S
signal power from photocurrent
Signal Calculation
Consider the modulated optical power signal P(t) falls on the photodetector
with the form of:
P (t ) P0 [1 ms (t )]
i ph
[6-8]
[6-9]
is
ip
ip M 2 s
2
m 2 I P2
2
[6-9]
i DB
i DS
0 x 1.0
2
DB
2qI D BM 2 F ( M )
[6-12]
[6-11]
IL
M 2 F (M ) 1
2
DS
2qI L B
[6-13]
iN
N iQ
i DB
i DS
2q ( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B
[6-14]
iT
4k BTB
RL
[6-15]
S/N Calculation
Having obtained the signal and total noise, the signal-to-noise-ratio can be
written as:
2
iP M 2
N 2q( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B 4k B TB / RL
[6-16]
Since the noise figure F(M) increases with M, there always exists an
optimum value of M that maximizes the S/N. For sinusoidally modulated
x
signal with m=1 and F ( M ) M :
x2
opt
2qI L 4k B T / R L
xq ( I P I D )
[6-17]
Assignment
Determine the expression in the last
equation from S/N ratio by differentiating
6.16 w.r.t. M and equating it equal to zero.
A
P 1 R
J dr
o
Ip
q o 1 e
in
s w
Ah
2 pn pn pno
Dp
G x 0
2
x
p
Where Dp is the hole diffusion constant, pn is the hole
concentration in the n-type material, p is the excess
hole life time, pno is the equilibrium hole density, and
G(x) is the electron-hole generation rate.
G ( x) o s e s x
J diff
s L p s x
Dp
q o
e
qpno
1 s Lp
Lp
J tot
Dp
e s x
q o 1
qpno
1 s L p
Lp
The response time of a photo detector with its output circuit depends
mainly on the following three factors:
1- The transit time of the photo carriers in the depletion region. The transit
time t d depends on the carrier drift velocity v d and the depletion layer
width w, and is given by:
w
td
vd
[6-18]
1
B
2RT CT
RT Rs || RL and CT C a C d
[6-19]
Fast carriers
Charge carriers produced in the depletion region are separated
and collected quickly.
Slow carriers
Electron hole pairs generated in the n and p regions must
slowly diffuse to the depletion region before they can be
separated and collected.
multiplication layer
Metal contact
Photodetectors
Heterojunction Photodiode
Separate Absorption and Multiplication (SAM) APD
InGaAs-InP heterostructure Separate Absorption and Multiplication APD
Electrode
InP
InP
p h
R
InGaAs
E
P +
E (x )
n+
Avalanche
Absorption
region
region
x
out
Photodetectors
Heterojunction Photodiode
Separate Absorption and Multiplication (SAM) APD
E
c
(a) Energy
InP
E
v
InGaAs
layer.
InP
InGaAsPgradinglayer
(b) An
InGaAs
Photogeneratedelectronconcentration
exp(
x )attime
t =0
v
de
x
B
h > E
E
g
h +
ph
Comparison of photodetectors