Hydrogen

INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen,chemicalelementthatexistsasagasat

roomtemperature.Whenhydrogengasburnsinair,it
formswater.FrenchchemistAntoineLavoisiernamed
hydrogenfromtheGreekwordsforwaterformer.
Hydrogenhasthesmallestatomsofanyelement.A
hydrogenatomcontainsoneproton,andonlyone
electron.Theprotonisthecenter,ornucleus,ofthe
hydrogenatom,andtheelectrontravelsaroundthe
nucleus.
Purehydrogenexistsashydrogengas,inwhichpairsof
hydrogenatomsbondtogethertomakemolecules.

Introduction to hydrogen (video)

HOW WAS HYDRGOEN FOUND

DiscoveredbyHenryCavendish
HydrogenwasdiscoveredinLondon
Itwasdiscoveredintheyearof1766

How was hydrogen found(video)

The hydrogen atom

consisting the proton
in the centre or the
nucleus of the hydrogen atom and the electron travelling around the nucleus.

The Hydrogen H2 Molecule

POSITION IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Hydrogenisthefirstelementintheperiodictableof

theelementsandisrepresentedbythesymbolH.
Hydrogen,withonlyoneproton,isthesimplest
element.ItisusuallyplacedinPeriod1andGroup1of
theperiodictable.
Hydrogencancombinechemicallywithalmostevery
otherelementandformsmorecompoundsthandoes
anyotherelement.Thesecompoundsincludewater,
minerals,andhydrocarbonscompoundsmadeof
hydrogenandcarbonsuchaspetroleumandnatural
gas.

Position of hydrogen in the periodic table

I
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O
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O
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H

How is Hydrogen Produced?

Reformingfossilfuels
Heathydrocarbonswithsteam
ProduceH2andCO

Electrolysisofwater
UseelectricitytosplitwaterintoO2andH2

HighTemperatureElectrolysis
Experimental

Biologicalprocesses
Verycommoninnature
Experimentalinlaboratories

STEAM REFORMING
Fromanyhydrocarbon
Naturalgastypicallyused

Water(steam)andhydrocarbonmixedathigh

temperature(7001100C)

Steam(H2O)reactswithmethane(CH4)
CH4+H2OCO+3H2-191.7kJ/mol

Thethermodynamicefficiencycomparableto(or

worsethan)aninternalcombustionengine
Difficulttomotivateinvestmentintechnology

CARBON MONOXIDE REFORMING

Additionalhydrogencanberecoveredusing

carbonmonoxide(CO)
low-temp(130C)watergasshiftreaction
CO+H2OCO2+H2+40.4kJ/mol

Oxygen(O)atomstrippedfromsteam
Oxidizesthecarbon(C)
LiberateshydrogenboundtoCandO2

Hydrogen Steam Reforming

Hydrogen Steam Reforming Plants

Electrolysis of Water (H2O)

Electolysis of water (video)

Renewable Energy for Electrolysis

http://www.howstuffworks.com/hydrogen-economy4.htm

Biomass Electrolysis Module

High Temperature Electrolysis

Electrolysisathightemperatures
Uselessenergytosplitwater

Biological H2 Creation
Naturehasverysimple

methodstosplitwater
Scientistsareworkingto

mimictheseprocessesin
thelab;thencommercially

S
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF H2
Dihydrogenisa:
Colourless,
Odourless
Tasteless
Combustiblegas
Lighterthanair
Insolubleinwater
Itsmeltingpoint18.73K

&boilingpoint23.67K

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF H2
Hydrogengasdoesnotusuallyreactwithotherchemicals

atroomtemperature,becausethebondbetweenthe
hydrogenatomsisverystrongandcanonlybebrokenwith
alargeamountofenergy.
Sinceitsorbitalisincompletewith1s 1electronic
configuration,itdoescombinewithalmostallthe
elements.
Itaccomplishesreactionsby:
1.lossofonee-togiveH+
2.gainofane-toformH3.sharingelectronstoformasinglecovalentbond.

F
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N
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Bosch reaction
Hydrogenation
Dehydrogenation
Transfer hydrogenation
Hydrogenolysis

BOSCHREACTION
TheBosch reactionisachemicalreactionbetweencarbon
dioxideandhydrogenthatproduceselementalcarbon(graphite),waterand
a10%returnofinvestedheat.Thisreactionrequirestheintroductionof
ironasacatalystandrequiresatemperaturelevelof530-730degrees
Celsius.
Theoverallreactionisasfollows:

CO2(g)+2H2(g)C(s)+2H2O(g)
Theabovereactionisactuallytheresultoftworeactions.Thefirst
reaction,thereversewatergasshiftreaction,isafastone.
CO2+H2CO+H2O
Thesecondreactioncontrolsthereactionrate.
CO+H2C+H2O

Theoverallreactionproduces2.3103joulesforeverygramof
carbonproducedat650C.Reactiontemperaturesareintherange
of450to600C.
Thereactioncanbeacceleratedinthepresenceof
aniron,cobaltornickelcatalyst.Rutheniumalsoservestospeed
upthereaction.
TogetherwiththeSabatierreactiontheBoschreactionis
studiedasawaytoremovecarbondioxideandtogenerateclean
wateraboardaspacestation
Thereactionisalsousedtoproducegraphiteforradiocarbon
datingwithAcceleratorMassSpectrometry.
ItisnamedaftertheGermanchemistCarlBosch.

Hydrogenation
Totreatwithhydrogen-isachemicalreactionbetween
molecularhydrogen(H2)andanothercompoundorelement,usuallyin
thepresenceofacatalyst.Theprocessiscommonlyemployed
toreduceorsaturateorganiccompounds.Hydrogenationtypically
constitutestheadditionofpairsofhydrogenatomstoamolecule,
generallyanalkene.Catalystsarerequiredforthereactiontobeusable;
non-catalytichydrogenationtakesplaceonlyatveryhigh
temperatures.Hydrogenaddstodoubleandtriplebondsinhydrocarbons
Becauseoftheimportanceofhydrogen,manyrelatedreactionshave
beendevelopedforitsuse.Mosthydrogenationsusegaseoushydrogen
(H2),butsomeinvolvethealternativesourcesofhydrogen,notH2:these
processesarecalledtransferhydrogenations.Thereversereaction,removal
ofhydrogenfromamolecule,iscalleddehydrogenation.

Areactionwherebondsarebrokenwhilehydrogenisaddedis
calledhydrogenolysis,areactionthatmayoccurtocarbon-carbonand
carbon-heteroatom(oxygen,nitrogenorhalogen)bonds.Hydrogenation
differsfromprotonationorhydrideaddition:inhydrogenation,the
productshavethesamechargeasthereactants.
Anillustrativeexampleofahydrogenationreactionistheaddition
ofhydrogentomaleicacidtoformsuccinicacid.Numerousimportant
applicationsofthispetrochemicalarefoundinpharmaceuticalandfood
industries.Hydrogenationofunsaturatedfatsproducessaturated
fatsand,insomecases,transfats.

DEHYDROGENATION
Dehydrogenationisachemicalreactionthatinvolvestheremoval
ofhydrogenfromamoleculeas(H2).Itisthereverseprocessof
hydrogenation.Dehydrogenationreactionsmaybeeitherlargescale
industrialprocessesorsmallerscalelaboratoryprocedures.
Classesofthereaction
Thereareavarietyofclassesofdehydrogenations:
AromatizationSix-memberedalicyclicringscanbearomatized
inthepresenceofhydrogenationcatalysts,theelementssulfur
andselenium,orquinones(suchasDDQ).
OxidationTheconversion
ofalcoholstoketonesoraldehydescanbeeffectedbymetalcatalysts
suchascopperchromite.IntheOppenaueroxidation,hydrogenis
transferredfromonealcoholtoanothertobringabouttheoxidation.

Dehydrogenationofaminesaminescanbeconverted
tonitrilesusingavarietyofreagents,suchasIodine
pentafluoride(IF5).
Dehydrogenationofparaffin'sandolefinsparaffin'slikenpentaneandisopentanecanbeconverted
topenteneandisopreneusingchromium(III)oxideasacatalystat
500degreeC.
Dehydrogenationconvertssaturatedfatstounsaturatedfats.
Enzymesthatcatalyzedehydrogenationarecalleddehydrogenases.
Dehydrogenationprocessesareusedextensivelytoproducestyrenein
thefinechemicals,oleochemicals,petrochemicals,anddetergents
industries.

TRANSFERHYDROGENATION

Istheadditionofhydrogen(H2;dihydrogen
ininorganicandorganometallicchemistry)toamoleculefromasourceother
thangaseousH2.Itisappliedinindustryandinorganicsynthesis,inpart
becauseoftheinconvenienceandexpenseofusinggaseousH2.Onelargescale
applicationoftransferhydrogenationiscoalliquefactionusing"donorsolvents"
suchastetralin

HYDROGENOLYSIS
Hydrogenolysisisachemicalreactionwherebyacarboncarbonor
carbonheteroatomsinglebondiscleavedorundergoes"lysis"by
hydrogen.Theheteroatommayvary,butitusuallyisoxygen,nitrogen,or
sulfur.Arelatedreactionishydrogenation,wherehydrogenisaddedtothe
molecule,withoutcleavingbonds.Usuallyhydrogenolysisisconducted
catalyticallyusinghydrogengas.

N
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HYDROGEN STORAGE
OPTIONS
CHEMICAL STORAGE
Dissociative
H2 2 H

PHYSICAL
STORAGE
Molecular
H2
REVERSIBL
E

REVERSIBL
E

NONREVERSIBLE

REFORMED FUEL
HYDROLYZED
FUEL
COMPRESSED
GAS

HYBRI
D
TANKS

DECOMPOSED
FUEL

LIQUID
HYDROGEN

CONVENTIONAL
METAL
HYDRIDES

COMPLEX
METAL
HYDRIDES

LIGHT
ELEMENT
SYSTEMS

Compressed Storage
Prototype vehicle tanks developed
Efficient high-volume manufacturing

processes needed
Less expensive materials desired
carbon fiber
binder

Evaluation of engineering factors

related to safety required

understanding of failure processes

Liquid Storage
Prototype vehicle tanks developed
Reduced mass and especially volume needed
Reduced cost and development of high-volume production processes
needed

Extenddormancy(timetostart
ofboiloffloss)without
increasingcost,mass,volume
Improveenergyefficiencyof
liquefaction

Hybrid Physical Storage

Compressed H2 @ cryogenic temperatures
H2 density increases at lower temperatures
further density increase possible through use of

adsorbents opportunity for new materials

The best of both worlds, or the worst ??

Concepts under development

Non-reversible On-board Storage

On-board reforming of fuels has been rejected as a source of

hydrogen because of packaging and cost

energy station reforming to provide compressed hydrogen is still a

viable option

Hydrolysis hydrides suffer from high heat rejection on-board

and large energy requirements for recycle

On-board decomposition of specialty fuels is a real option
need desirable recycle process
engineering for minimum cost and ease of use

Reversible On-board Storage

Reversible, solid state, on-board storage is the ultimate goal for

automotive applications
Accurate, fast computational techniques needed to scan new

formulations and new classes of hydrides

Thermodynamics of hydride systems can be tuned to improve

system performance
storage capacity
temperature of hydrogen release
kinetics/speed of hydrogen refueling
Catalysts and additives may also improve storage

characteristics

ISOTOPES OF
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen has three naturally
occurring isotopes,
denoted1H,2Hand3H.
Other, highly unstable nuclei
(4Hto7H) have been
synthesized in the laboratory
but not observed in nature

Histhemostcommonhydrogenisotopewith
anabundanceofmorethan99.98%.Because
thenucleusofthisisotopeconsistsofonlya
singleproton,itisgiventhedescriptivebut
rarelyusedformalnameprotium.
1

H,theotherstablehydrogenisotope,isknownasdeuteriumand
containsoneprotonandoneneutroninitsnucleus.Essentiallyall
deuteriumintheuniverseisthoughttohavebeenproducedatthe
timeoftheBigBang,andhasenduredsincethattime.Deuterium
isnotradioactive,anddoesnotrepresentasignificanttoxicity
hazard.Waterenrichedinmoleculesthatincludedeuterium
insteadofnormalhydrogeniscalledheavywater.Deuteriumand
itscompoundsareusedasanon-radioactivelabelinchemical
experimentsandinsolventsfor1H-NMRspectroscopy.Heavy
waterisusedasaneutronmoderatorandcoolantfornuclear
reactors.Deuteriumisalsoapotentialfuelfor
commercialnuclearfusion
2

Hisknownastritiumandcontainsoneprotonandtwo
neutronsinitsnucleus.Itisradioactive,decayingintohelium3throughbetadecaywithahalf-lifeof12.32years.Itisso
radioactivethatitcanbeusedinluminouspaint,makingit
usefulinsuchthingsaswatches.Theglasspreventsthesmall
amountofradiationfromgettingout.Smallamountsof
tritiumoccurnaturallybecauseoftheinteractionofcosmic
rayswithatmosphericgases;tritiumhasalsobeenreleased
duringnuclearweaponstests.Itisusedinnuclearfusion
reactions,asatracerinisotopegeochemistry,andspecialized
inself-poweredlightingdevices.Tritiumhasalsobeenusedin
chemicalandbiologicallabelingexperimentsasaradiolabe
3

Hcontainsoneprotonandthreeneutronsinitsnucleus.It
isahighlyunstableisotopeofhydrogen.Ithasbeen
synthesizedinthelaboratorybybombardingtritiumwith
fast-movingdeuteriumnuclei.Inthisexperiment,the
tritiumnucleicapturedneutronsfromthefast-moving
deuteriumnucleus.Thepresenceofthehydrogen-4was
deducedbydetectingtheemittedprotons.Itsatomic
massis4.027810.00011.Itdecaysthroughneutron
emissionwithahalf-lifeof(1.390.10)1022seconds.
4

Hisahighlyunstableisotopeofhydrogen.The
nucleusconsistsofaprotonandfourneutrons.
Ithasbeensynthesizedinthelaboratoryby
bombardingtritiumwithfast-movingtritium
nuclei.Inthisexperiment,onetritiumnucleus
capturestwoneutronsfromtheother,becoming
anucleuswithoneprotonandfourneutrons.
Theremainingprotonmaybedetected,andthe
existenceofhydrogen-5deduced.Itdecays
throughdoubleneutronemissionandhasahalflifeofatleast9.11022seconds.
5

Hdecaysthroughtripleneutron
emissionandhasahalf-lifeof
2.901022seconds.Itconsistsof1
protonand5neutrons.
6

Hconsistsofaprotonandsixneutrons.Itwasfirst
synthesizedin2003byagroupofRussian,Japanese
andFrenchscientistsatRIKEN'sRIBeamScience
Laboratorybybombardinghydrogenwithhelium8atoms.Intheresultingreaction,thehelium-8's
neutronsweredonatedtothehydrogen'snucleus.
Thetworemainingprotonsweredetectedbythe
"RIKENtelescope",adevicecomposedofseveral
layersofsensors,positionedbehindthetargetofthe
RIBeamcyclotron.
7

IMPORTANT
Hydrogenistheonlyelementthathasdifferentnamesfor
itsisotopesincommonusetoday.Duringtheearlystudyof
radioactivity,variousheavyradioactiveisotopesweregiven
theirownnames,butsuchnamesarenolongerused,exceptfor
deuteriumandtritium.ThesymbolsDandT(instead
of2Hand3H)aresometimesusedfordeuteriumandtritium,but
thecorrespondingsymbolforprotium,P,isalreadyinuse
forphosphorusandthusisnotavailableforprotium.In
itsnomenclaturalguidelines,theInternationalUnionofPure
andAppliedChemistryallowsanyofD,T,2H,and3Htobe
used,although2Hand3Harepreferred.

Table:- Atomic And Physical Properties Of Isotopes Hydrogen

Pro Hydr
pert ogen
y
Acti
ve
(%)
Abu
nda
nce

Deut
eriu
m

99.9 0.0
85
156

Triti
um

-15
10

Rela 1.00 2.0

tive 8
14
at
mas
s

3.0
16

Mel
ting
poi
nt

13.9 18.
6
73

20.
62

Boil
ing

20.3 23.
9
67

25.
0

USES OF
HYDROGEN
4 ENERGY
SECURITY
4 ECONOMIC
PROSPERITY

4 ENVIRONMENTAL
STEWARDSHIP

INTERIOR OF THE SUN

TheSunsenergyis

producedinthecore
throughnuclearfusion
ofhydrogenatomsinto
helium.Gasesinthe
coreareabout150
timesasdenseaswater
andreachtemperatures
ashighas16million
degreesC(29million
degreesF).

Presence of hydrogen in volcanoes and

in our food particles

Cont.
Hydrogenaccountsforabout73percentofthe

observedmassoftheuniverseandisthemost
commonelementintheuniverse.
Hydrogenatomswerethefirstatomstoforminthe
earlyuniverseandthattheatomsoftheother
elementsformedlaterfromthehydrogenatoms.
About90percentoftheatomsintheuniverseare
hydrogen,about9percentarehelium,andallthe
otherelementsaccountforlessthan1percent.

Cont.
Common Molecules:

Manycommonmolecules
containhydrogen.Inthese
molecules,butane
containstenhydrogen
atoms,ammoniacontains
threehydrogenatoms,and
watercontainstwo
hydrogenatoms.

Transportation

Biomass
Hydro

HIGH
EFFICIENCY
& RELIABILITY

Wind
Solar

Geothermal

Oil
Coal
Natural
Gas

With Carbon Sequestration

Nuclear

ZERO/NEAR
ZERO
EMISSIONS

Distributed
Generation

Hydrogen Economy (Hydrogen As Fuel)

With advancement of science and technology we realize in
order to make our lives comfortable fossil fuels are depleating
at an alarming rate and will be exhausted soon. The electricity
cannot be stored to run automobiles. It is not possible to store
and transport nuclear energy. Hydrogen is another alternative
source of energy and hence called as hydrogen economy.
Hydrogen has some advantages as fuel
Availableinabundanceincombinedformaswater.
OncombustionproducesH2O.Hencepollutionfree.
H2-O2fuelcellgivemorepower.
Excellentreducingagent.Thereforecanbeusedas
substituteofcarboninreductionforprocessesinindustry.

Flexibility Of Use
Transportation
Desiredrangecanbeachievedwithon-boardhydrogenstorage(unlike
BatteryElectricVehicle)
Canbeusedininternalcombustionengines
Trains,automobiles,buses,andships

Buildings
Combinedheat,power,andfuel
Reliableenergyservicesforcriticalapplications
Gridindependence

Industrial Sector
Alreadyplaysanimportantroleasachemical
Opportunitiesforadditionalrevenuestreams

Storing & Transporting Hydrogen

StoreandTransportasaGas
Bulkygas
CompressingH2requiresenergy
CompressedH2hasfarlessenergythanthesamevolumeof

gasoline

StoreandTransportasaSolid

SodiumBorohydride
CalciumHydride
LithiumHydride
SodiumHydride

Transporting Hydrogen

Hydrogen-Powered Autos

Hydrogen-Powered Autos

Hydrogen-Powered Trucks

Hydrogen-Powered Aircraft

Hydrogenpoweredpassengeraircraftwithcryogenictanksalongspineof
fuselage.Hydrogenfuelrequiresabout4timesthevolumeofstandardjet
fuel(kerosene).

Hydrogen-Powered Rockets

Guts of a Fuel Cell Vehicle

Fuel Cell Life

While fuel cells do
wear out over time, A
PEM fuel cell in a
vehicle should have a
4,000 hour service
life, while stationary
applications should
last 40,000 hours.

Hydrogen Safety
Hydrogen

Gasoline
Three Second
seconds

Fuel leak simulation

Hydrogen on left
Gasoline on right
Equivalent energy
release

One minute

Advantages of a Hydrogen Economy

WasteproductofburningH2iswater
Eliminationoffossilfuelpollution
Eliminationofgreenhousegases
Eliminationofeconomicdependence
Distributedproduction
Thestuffofstars

Disadvantages of Hydrogen Economy

Lowenergydensities
Difficultyinhandling,storage,transport
Requiresanentirelynewinfrastructure
CreatesCO2ifmadefromfossilfuels
Lownetenergyyields
Muchenergyneededtocreatehydrogen

Possibleenvironmentalproblems
Ozonedepletion(notprovenatthispoint)

A Vision of a Hydrogen
Future
"I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that
hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or
together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and
light, of an intensity of which coal is not capable. I believe
then that when the deposits of coal are exhausted, we shall
heat and warm ourselves with water. Water will be the coal
of the future."
JulesVernes(1870)Lle mystrieuse

RISKS OF
HYDROGE
N

HYDROGEN DAMAGE
Hydrogen damageisthegenericnamegiventoalargenumber
ofmetaldegradationprocessesduetointeractionwithhydrogen.
Hydrogenispresentpracticallyeverywhere,severalkilometersabovethe
earthandinsidetheearth.Engineeringmaterialsareexposedtohydrogen
andtheymayinteractwithitresultinginvariouskindsofstructuraldamage.
Damagingeffectsofhydrogeninmetallicmaterialshavebeenknownsince
1875whenW.H.Johnsonreportedsomeremarkablechangesproduced
inironbytheactionofhydrogenandacids.Duringtheinterveningyears
manysimilareffectshavebeenobservedindifferentstructuralmaterials,
suchassteel,aluminum,titanium,andzirconium.Becauseofthe
technologicalimportanceofhydrogendamage,manypeopleexploredthe
nature,causesandcontrolmeasuresofhydrogenrelateddegradationof
metals.Hardening,embrittlementandinternaldamagearethemainhydrogen
damageprocessesinmetals.Thisarticleconsistsofaclassificationof
hydrogendamage,briefdescriptionofthevariousprocessesandtheir
mechanisms,andsomeguidelinesforthecontrolofhydrogendamage.

HYDROGEN
EMBRITTLEMENT
Hydrogen embrittlementistheprocessbywhichvarious

metals,mostimportantlyhigh-strengthsteel,
becomebrittleandfracturefollowingexposure
tohydrogen.Hydrogenembrittlementisoftentheresultof
unintentionalintroductionofhydrogenintosusceptible
metalsduringformingorfinishingoperationsand
increasescrackinginthematerial.
Hydrogenembrittlementisalsousedtodescribethe
formationofzircaloyhydride.Useoftheterminthis
contextiscommoninthenuclearindustry.

HYDROGEN LEAK TESTING

Hydrogen leak testingisthenormalwayinwhichahydrogenpressure
vesselorinstallationischeckedforleaksorflaws.Therearevarioustests.
TheHydrostatictest,Thevesselisfilledwithanearlyincompressible
liquid-usuallywateroroil-andexaminedforleaksorpermanentchangesin
shape.Thetestpressureisalwaysconsiderablymorethantheoperating
pressuretogiveamarginforsafety,typically150%oftheoperatingpressure.
TheBursttest,Thevesselisfilledwithagasandtestedforleaks.The
testpressureisalwaysconsiderablymorethantheoperatingpressuretogive
amarginforsafety,typically200%ormoreoftheoperatingpressure.
TheHeliumleaktest,Theleakdetectionmethoduseshelium(thelightest
inertgas)asatracergasanddetectsitinconcentrationsassmallasonepart
in10million.Theheliumisselectedprimarilybecauseitpenetratessmall
leaksreadily.

Usuallyavacuuminsidetheobjectiscreatedwithanexternal
pumpconnectedtotheinstrument.
Alternativelyheliumcanbeinjectedinsidetheproductwhilethe
productitselfisenclosedinavacuumchamberconnectedtothe
instrument.InthiscaseBurstandleakagetestscanbecombinedin
oneoperation.
TheHydrogensensor,Theobjectisfilledwithamixtureof
5%hydrogen/95%nitrogen,(below5.7%hydrogenisnonflammable(ISO-10156).Thisiscalledtypicallyasniffingtest. The
handprobeconnectedtothemicroelectronichydrogensensorsisused
tochecktheobject.Anaudiosignalincreasesinproximityofaleak.
Detectionofleaksgodownto5x10-7cubiccentimeterspersecond.
Comparedtotheheliumtest:hydrogenischeaperthanhelium,no
needforavacuum,theinstrumentcouldbecheaper.

HYDROGEN
SAFETY
Hydrogen safetycoversthesafeproduction,handling
anduseofhydrogen.Hydrogenposesuniquechallengesdue
toitseaseofleaking,low-energyignition,widerangeof
combustiblefuel-airmixtures,buoyancy,anditsability
toembrittlemetalsthatmustbeaccountedfortoensuresafe
operation.Liquidhydrogenposesadditionalchallengesdue
toitsincreaseddensityandtheextremelylow
temperaturesneededtokeepitinliquidform.

O
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OCCURRENCE OF DIHYDROGEN
HydrogenisthetenthmostcommonelementonEarth.

Becauseitissolight,though,hydrogenaccountsfor
lessthan1percentofEarth'stotalmass.Itisusually
foundincompounds.Purehydrogengasrarelyoccurs
innature,althoughvolcanoesandsomeoilwells
releasesmallamountsofhydrogengas.
Hydrogenisinnearlyeverycompoundinthehuman
body.Forexample,itisinkeratin,themainprotein
thatformsourhairandskin,andintheenzymesthat
digestfoodinourintestines.Hydrogenisinthe
moleculesinfoodthatprovideenergy:fats,proteins,
andcarbohydrates.

PREPARATION OF DIHYDROGEN
Laboratory preparation of dihydrogen:

1.Itisusuallypreparedbythereactionofgranulated
zincwithdilutehydrochloricacid.Thechemical
equationforthisreactionisthefollowing:
Zn+2HClZnCl2+H2
2.Itcanalsobepreparedbythereactionofzincwith
aqueousalkali.Thechemicalequationforthisreaction
isthefollowing:
Zn+2NaOH
Na2ZnO2+H2
(Sodiumzincate)

Dihydrogen in 3D

Cont.
Commercial production of dihydrogen:

1.Electrolysisofacidifiedwaterusingplatinum
electrodesgiveshydrogen.
2H2Oelectrolysis2H2+O2
Thischemicalequationshowsthattwowater
molecules(withelectricity),formtwomoleculesof
hydrogengasandonemoleculeofoxygengas.
2.Highpurity(>99.95%)dihydrogenisobtainedby
electrolysingwarmaqueousbariumhydroxide
solutionbetweennickelelectrodes.

Commercial production of dihydrogen

Cont.
3. Itisobtainedasabyproductinthemanufactureofsodium
hydroxide&chlorinebytheelectrolysisofbrinesolutions.
Thereactionsthattakesplaceare:
Atanode:2Cl-Cl2+2eAtcathode:2H2O+2e-H2+2OHTheoverallreactionis

2Na++2Cl-+2H2O

Cl2+H2+2Na++2OH

Cont.
4. Reactionofsteamonhydrocarbonsathightemperaturein
thepresenceofcatalystyieldshydrogen.e.g.,
CH4+H2O1270KCO+3H2

Ni

ThemixtureofCO&H2iscalledwater gas.
Itisusedforsynthesisofmethanol&anumberof

hydrocarbons,thereforeitiscalledsynthesisgasor
syngas.
Theproductionofdihydrogencanbeincreasedbyreacting
carbonmonoxidewithsteaminthepresenceironchromate
ascatalyst.
CO+H2O673KCO2+H2
Catalyst
Thisiscalledwater-gas shift reaction.Carbondioxideis
removedbyscrubbingwithsodiumarsenitesolution.

CHEMISTRY OF
DIHYDROGEN
Reaction
with halogens:
Itreactswithhalogens,X2togivehydrogenhalides,
HX,
H2+X22HX(X=F,Cl,Br,I)
Whilethereactionwithfluorineoccurseveninthe
dark,withiodineitrequiresacatalyst.
Reaction with dioxygen:
Itreactswithdioxygentoformwater.Thereactionis
highlyexothermic.
2H2+O2catalystorheating2H2O;H=-285.9kJmol-1

Cont.
Reaction with dinitrogen:

Withdintrogenitformsammonia.
3H2+N2673K,200atm2NH3;H=-92.6kJmol-1
ThisisthemethodforthemanufactureofammoniabyHaber
process.
Haber Process:
GermanchemistandNobellaureateFritzHaberdevelopedan
economicalmethodofproducingammoniafromairand
seawater.Inhisprocess,nitrogenisseparatedfromtheother
componentsofairthroughdistillization.Hydrogenisobtained
fromseawaterbypassinganelectriccurrentthroughthewater.
Thenitrogenandhydrogenarecombinedtoformammonia
(NH3).

Cont.
Reaction with metals:

Hydrogenalsoformsionicbondswithsomemetals,at
ahightemperature,creatingacompoundcalleda
hydride.
H2+2M2MH
WhereMisanalkalimetal(e.g.lithium,sodium,
potassium,rubidium,cesium,andfrancium.)
Reactions with metal ions & metal oxides:
Itreducessomemetalionsinaqueoussolution&
oxidesofmetals(lessactivethaniron)into
correspondingmetals.
H2+Pd2+Pd+2H+
yH2+MxOyxM+yH2O

Cont.
Reactions with organic compounds:

1.Hydrogenationofvegetableoilsusingnickelas
catalystgivesediblefats.(margarine&vanaspati
ghee).
2.Hydroformylationofolefinsyieldsaldehydeswhich
furtherundergoreductiontogivealcohols.
H2+CO+RCH=CH2RCH2CH2CHO
H2+RCH2CH2CHORCH2CH2CH2OH

USES OF DIHYDROGEN
Thelargestuseofdihydrogenisinthesynthesisof

ammoniawhichisusedinthemanufactureofnitric
acid&nitrogenousfertilizers.
Dihydrogenisusedinthemanufactureofvanaspati
fat.
Itisusedinthemanufactureofbulkorganic
chemicals,particularlymethanol.
CO+2H2catalystcobaltCH3OH
Itiswidelyusedforthemanufactureofmetal
hydrides.
Itisusedforthepreparationofhydrogenchloride,a
highlyusefulchemical.

Cont
Inmetallurgicalprocesses,itiswidelyusedto

reduceheavymetaloxidestometals.
Atomichydrogen&oxy-hydrogentorchesfinduse
forcutting&weldingpurposes.
Itisusedasarocketfuelinspaceresearch.
Dihydrogenisusedinthefuelcellsforgenerating
electricalenergy.Ithasmanyadvantagesoverthe
conventionalfossilfuels&electricpower.

DIHYDROGEN AS A FUEL:
Dihydrogenreleaseslargequantitiesofheaton

combustion.
Dihydrogencanreleasemoreenergythanpetrol's.
HYDROGEN ECONOMY: Thebasicprincipleof
hydrogeneconomyisthetransportation&storageof
energyintheformofliquidorgaseousdihydrogen.
Energyistransmittedintheformofdihydrogen&not
aselectricpower.
Itisalsouseinfuelcellforgenerationofelectric
power.

Various uses of dihydrogen

R
D
Y
H

S
E
ID

HYDRIDES
Dihydrogenalsoformsionicbondswithsomemetals,

atahightemperature,creatingacompoundcalleda
hydride.
If E isthesymbolofanelementthenhydridecanbe

expressedasEHX(e.g.MgH2)orEmHn(e.g.B2H6).
Thehydridesareclassifiedintothreecategories:

1.Ionicorsalineorsaltlikehydrides.
2.Covalentormolecularhydrides.
3.Metallicornon-stoichiometrichydrides.

Nearly all elements are able to form hydride

compound

IONIC OR SALINE HYDRIDES

Thesearestoichiometriccompoundsofdihydrogen

formedwithmostofthes-blockelementswhichare
highlyelectropositiveincharacter.
Covalentcharacterisfoundinthelightermetalhydrides
(e.g.LiH,BeH2&MgH2).
Theionichydridesarecrystalline,non-volatile&nonconductinginsolidstate.
Theirmeltsconductelectricity&onelectrolysisliberate
dihydrogengasatanode,whichconfirmstheexistenceof
H-ion.
2H-(melt)anodeH2+2e-
Salinehydridesreactviolentlywithwaterproducing
dihydrogengas.
NaH+H2ONaOH+H2

COVALENT OR MOLECULAR
Dihydrogenformsmolecularcompoundswithmostof
HYDRIDE

thep-blockelements.Fore.g.CH4,NH3,H2O&HF.
Hydrogencompoundsofnonmetalshavealsobeen
consideredashydrides.Beingcovalenttheyarevolatile
compounds.
Molecularhydridesarefurtherclassifiedaccordingtothe
relativenumberofelectrons&bondsintheirLewis
structureinto:
1.Electron-deficient
2.Electron-precise
3.Electron-richhydrides.

ELEC
TRON
DEFI
CIEN
T
HYD
RIDE
S

ELEC
TRON
PREC
ISE
HYD
RIDE
S

ELEC
TRON
-RICH
HYD
RIDE
S

Has
few
elec
tron
s for
Lewi
s
stru
ctur
e.

Hav
e
the
requ
ired
num
ber
of
elec
tron
s for

Hav
e
exce
ss
elec
tron
s
whic
h
are
pres

METALLIC HYDRIDES
Theseareformedbymanyd-block&f-blockelements.
Themetalsofgroup7,8&9donotformhydride.
Thesehydridesconductheat&electricitythoughnotas

efficientlyastheirparentmetalsdo.
Unlikesalinehydrides,theyarealmostnon-stoichiometric,
beingdeficientinhydrogen.Fore.g.LaH 2.87&YbH2.55.
Lawofconstantcompositiondoesnotholdgood.
Thepropertyofabsorptionofhydrogenontransitionmetal

iswidelyusedincatalyticreduction/hydrogenation
reactionsforthepreparationoflargenumberof
compounds.
Someofthemetalscanaccommodateaverylargevolume
ofhydrogen&canbeusedasitsstorage media.

R
E
T
A
W

Water
Amajorpartofalllivingorganismsismadeupof

water.

Humanbodyhasabout65%&someplantshaveas

muchas95%water.

Itisacrucialcompoundforthesurvivalofalllife

forms.

Itisasolventofgreatimportance.

Different uses of water

Physical properties of water

Itisacolourless&tastelessliquid.
Theunusualpropertiesofwaterinthecondensed

phase(liquid&solid)areduetothepresenceof
extensivehydrogenbondingbetweenwatermolecules.
Waterhasahigherspecificheat,thermalconductivity,
surfacetension,dipolemoment&dielectricconstant
whencomparedtootherliquids.
Itisanexcellentsolventfortransportationofions&
moleculesrequiredforplant&animalmetabolism.
Duetohydrogenbondingwithpolarmolecules,even
covalentcompoundslikealcohol&carbohydrates
dissolveinwater.

STRUCTURE OF WATER
Inthegasphasewaterisabentmoleculewithabondangleof

104.50,

andO-Hbondlengthof95.7pm.
Itisahighlypolarmolecule.

Intheliquidphasewatermoleculesareassociatedtogetherby

hydrogen bonds.

Densityofwaterismorethanthatofice.

Hydrogen Bonding in Water:

Hydrogenbondsarechemicalbondsthatformbetween
moleculescontainingahydrogenatombondedtoastrongly
electronegativeatom.Becausetheelectronegativeatom
pullstheelectronfromthehydrogenatom,theatomsform
averypolarmolecule,meaningoneendisnegatively
chargedandtheotherendispositivelycharged.Hydrogen
bondsformbetweenthesemoleculesbecausethenegative
endsofthemoleculesareattractedtothepositiveendsof
othermolecules,andviceversa.Hydrogenbondingmakes
waterformaliquidatroomtemperature.

STRUCTURE OF ICE:
Icehasahighlyorderedthreedimensional

hydrogenbondedstructure.
Examinationoficecrystalswithx-raysshowsthat
eachoxygenatomissurroundedtetrahedrallyby
fourotheroxygenatomsadistanceof276pm.
Hydrogenbondinggivesicearatheropentype
structurewithwideholes.Theseholescanhold
someothermoleculesofappropriatesize
interstitially.

Structure of ice

Chemical properties of water

Amphoteric nature:ithastheabilitytoactasanacidas
wellasabasei.e.,itbehavesasanamphotericsubstance.
IntheBronstedsenseitactsanacidwithNH3andabasewith
H2S.

H2O+NH3OH-+NH4+
H2O+H2SH3O++HS-
Theauto-protolysis(self-ionization)ofwatertakesplaceas
follows:
H2O+H2OH3O++OH-

REDOX REACTIONS INVOLVING WATER

Watercanbeeasilyreducedtodihydrogenbyhighly

electropositivemetals.
2H2O+2Na2NaOH+H2
Thus,itisagreatsourceofdihydrogen.
WaterisoxidisedtoO2duringphotosynthesis.

6CO2+12H2OC6H12O6+6H2O+6O2
WithfluorinealsoitisoxidisedtoO2.

2F2+2H2O4H++4F-+O2

Hydrolysis reaction
Duetohighdielectricconstant,ithasaverystrong

hydratingtendency.Itdissolvesmanyionic
compounds.However,certaincovalent&some
ioniccompoundsarehydrolysedinwater.
P4O10+6H2O4H3PO4
SiCl4+2H2OSiO2+4HCl
N3-+3H2ONH3+3OH

A hydrolysis process generally involves water

HYDRATES FORMATION
Fromaqueoussolutionsmanysaltscanbecrystallised

ashydratedsalts.Suchanassociationofwaterisof
differenttypesviz.,
(i)coordinated water e.g.,
[Cr(H2O)6]3+3Cl(ii)interstitial water e.g.,
BaCl2.2H2O
(iii)hydrogen-bonded water e.g.,
[Cu(H2O)4]2+SO42-.H2OinCuSO4.5H2O

HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE:
Hydrogenperoxideisanimportantchemicalusedinpollution

controltreatmentofdomestic&industrialeffluents.
PREPARATION:
Itcanbepreparedbythefollowingmethods:
1.Acidifyingbariumperoxide&removingexcesswaterby
evaporationunderreducedpressuregiveshydrogenperoxide.
BaO2.8H2O+H2SO4BaSO4+H2O2+8H2O
2.Preoxodisulphate,obtainedbyelectrolyticoxidationof
acidifiedsulphatesolutionsathighcurrentdensity,on
hydrolysisyieldshydrogenperoxide.
2HSO4- electrolysis HO3SOOSO3Hhydrolysis2HSO4-+2H++H2O2

Cont.
ThismethodisnowusedforthelaboratorypreparationofD 2O2.

K2S2O8+2D2O2KDSO4+D2O2
3.Industiallyitispreparedbytheauto-oxidationof2alklylanthraquinols.
2-ethylanthraquinolH2O2+(oxidisedproduct)

Inthiscase1%H2O2isformed.Itisextractedwithwater&
concentratedto30%(bymass)bydistillationunderreduced
pressure.Itcanbefurtherconcentratedto85%bycareful
distillationunderlowpressure.Theremainingwatercanbe

Preparation of hydrogen peroxide

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
ThepurestateH2O2isanalmost

colourlessliquid
Metingpoint-272.4K.
Boilingpoint-423K
Vapourpressure(298K)1.9mmHg.
H2O2ismisciblewithwaterinallproportions&forms
ahydrateH2O2.H2O.
A30%solutionofH2O2ismarketedas100V
hydrogenperoxide.Itmeansthat1mlof30%H2O2
solutionwillgive100VofoxygenatSTP.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
Itactsasanoxidisingaswellasreducingagentin

bothacidic&alkalinemedia.
1.Oxidising action in acidic medium:
2Fe2++2H++H2O22Fe3++2H2O

PbS +4H2O2PbSO4+4H2O
2.Reducing action in acidic medium:
2MnO4-+6H++5H2O22Mn2++8H2O+5O2
HOCl +H2O2H3O++Cl-+O2

Cont.
3.Oxidising action in basic medium:
2Fe2++H2O22Fe3++2OHMn2++H2O2Mn4++2OH4.Reducing action in basic medium:
I2+H2O2+2OH-2I-+2H2O+O2
2MnO4-+3H2O22MnO2+3O2+2H2O+2OH-

STORAGE
H2O2decomposesslowlyonexposuretolight.

2H2O22H2O+O2
Inthepresenceofmetalsurfacesortracesof
alkali,theabovereactioniscatalysed.Itis,
thereforestoredinwax-linedglassorplastic
vesselsindark.
Itiskeptawayfromdustbecausedustcaninduce
explosivedecompositionofthecompound.

USES:
Itisusedashairbleach&asamilddisinfectant.Asan

antisepticitissoldinthemarketasperhydrol.
Itisusedtomanufacturechemicalslikesodium
perborate&per-carbonate,whichareusedinhigh
qualitydetergents.
Itisusedinthesynthesisofhydroquinone,tartaric
acid&certainfoodproducts&pharmaceuticalsetc.
Itisemployedintheindustriesasbleachingagentfor
textiles,paperpulp,leather,oils,fatsetc.
Itisalsousedinenvironmentalchemistry.

Y
V
A
R
E
H TE
A

HEAVY WATER,D2O
Itisextensivelyusedasamoderatorinnuclearreactors

&inexchangereactionsforthestudyofreaction
mechanisms.
Itcanbepreparedbyexhaustiveelectrolysisofwateror
asaby-productinsomefertilizerindustries.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Molecularmass:20.0276g/mol.
Meltingpoint:276.8K.
Boilingpoint:374.4K.

Cont..
Thebottomicecubesweremadewithheavy

water,whichiswaterthatusesdeuterium
hydrogen(nucleuswithanextraneutron)not
regularhydrogenwhichhasnoneutron.

Production of Hard water

USES:
Itisusedforthepreparationofotherdeuterium

compounds.Fore.g.
CaC2+2D2OC2D2+Ca(OD)2
SO3+D2OD2SO4
Al4C3+12D2O3CD4+4Al(OD)3

PROJECT HYDROGEN
SUMMARY:1)Hydrogenisthemostabundantandsimplestelement
intheuniverse.
2)Hydrogenhasnoelasticity.
3)Hydrogenisflameable.
4)Hydrogenisenergycarrier.
5)Hydrogencanbecooledandstoredasaliquid.
6)Atomichydrogenishighlyreactive.
7)Nascenthydrogenisveryreactiveformofhydrogen.

 Liquid and compressed hydrogen storage

Technically feasible; in use on prototype vehicles
Focus is on meeting packaging, mass, and cost targets
Both methods fall below energy density goals
Unique vehicle architecture and design could enable efficient

packaging and extended range

Solid state storage

Fundamental discovery and intense development necessary Idea-

rich research environment

Thank You
PPT Presented by
Name:-lokesh meena
class :-11th f
roll no :-19