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When a stone is thrown into a pool of water, the surface of the water is disturbed where the
stone strikes, and ripples move outwards from the place of its disturbance.
This wave train is produced by movements of the particles of water in the vicinity of the
ripples. The water however, does not actually flow in the direction in which the ripples
travel (think of a cork on the surface). Earthquake waves are quite analogous to those
caused by that of a stone thrown into a pool.
As we have seen
previously, due to
tectonism, pressure or
strain energy will
accumulate along faults.
Over hundreds of years,
the built up strain
energy may cause the
fault to break or rupture
causing the sudden loss
of energy, equivalent to
the snap of the board or
pop of the balloon.
To illustrate an S wave, tie one end of a clothesline to a tree. Hold the line
tight and shake it rapidly from side to side. You can see what looks like
waves running down the clothesline towards the tree distorting the shape of
the clothesline. Similarly, when S waves pass through rock they distort its
shape. S waves cannot pass through liquid or air, and you would not feel
them aboard a ship at sea.
Because S-waves involve shearing rather than compression, they move the
particles of the rock transverse to the direction of propagation. These rock
motions may be in a vertical (Sv) or horizontal (Sh) plane.
Velocity Formulae
P-wave velocity = (k + 4/3 )/
S-wave velocity = /
Where = density of the rock through which the wave is traveling
Granite
km/s
Water
5.5 km/s
1.5 km/s
3.0
0.0 km/s
High frequency
=
Low frequency
Complex
waveform
Sinusoidal
Components
If we can determine
the distance of the
same earthquake
from several
different
seismograph
stations, we are able
to locate the
epicenter, the point
on the Earths
surface directly
above the earthquake
focus.
Focal Depth
Hypocenter
The focus or
hypocenter is the point
beneath the Earths
surface where the crust
or mantle first ruptures
to cause an
earthquake. The depth
of the earthquake
below the surface is
called its focal depth.
Measuring an Earthquake
Magnitude
Magnitude Classes
Earthquakes are often
divided into classes
according to their
magnitude:
Great; M > =8
Major; 7 < =M < 7.9
Strong; 6 < = M < 6.9
Moderate: 5 < =M < 5.9
Light: 4 < =M < 4.9
Minor: 3 < =M < 3.9
Micro: M < 3
An increase one
magnitude unit
represents about a 30fold increase in release
of stored-up seismic
strain energy. So the
Hector Mine
Earthquake of
magnitude 7 in the
Mojave Desert on
October 16, 1999 would
be the equivalent of
about thirty earthquakes
the size of the Whittier
Narrows Earthquake of
October 1, 1987, which
was magnitude 6.
To record earthquakes at
seismographs thousands of miles
away, seismologists had to use
long-period (low frequency)
surface waves, because the high
frequency waves die out a few
hundred miles away from the
epicenter. To understand this
problem, think about how music
is heard a long distance away
from its source. Far away all
you can usually make out are the
very deep, or low-frequency,
bass tones which transmit
through the air more efficiently
than the treble (high-frequency)
notes.
Acceleration
g
g is the acceleration of gravity 9.8
(m/s2) or the strength of the
gravitational field (N/kg) (which it
turns out is equivalent). G is the
proportionality constant 6.67x10-11
(N-m2/kg2) in Newton's law of
gravity. On the other hand, the
force of gravity, or F = mg, at the
surface of the earth, or F =
GMm/r^2 at a distance r from the
center of the earth (where r is
greater than the radius of the
earth). When there is an
earthquake, the forces caused by
the shaking can be measured as a
percentage of gravity, or percent
g.
Intensity
II.
III.
Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of light trucks. Duration estimated. May not be recognized as an earthquake.
IV.
Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of heavy trucks; or sensation of a jolt like a heavy ball striking the walls. Standing cars rock. Windows,
dishes, doors rattle. Glasses clink. Crockery clashes. In the upper range of IV, wooden walls and frames creak. 0.015 0.02g.
V.
Felt outdoors; direction estimated. Sleepers wakened. Liquids disturbed, some spilled. Small unstable objects displaced or upset. Doors swing, close, open.
0.03 0.04g.
VI.
Shutters, pictures move. Pendulum clocks stop, start, change rate. 0.06 0.07g.
VII.
Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors. Persons walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken. Knickknacks, books, etc. off shelves. Pictures
off walls. Furniture moved or overturned. Weak plaster and masonry D cracked. Small bells ring (church, school). Trees, bushes shaken visibly, or heard to
rustle. 0.10 0.15g.
VIII.
Difficult to stand. Noticed by drivers. Hanging objects quiver. Furniture broken. Damage to masonry D, including cracks. Weak chimneys broken at roof
line. Fall of plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices, also unbraced parapets and architectural ornaments. Some cracks in masonry C. Waves on ponds,
water turbid with mud. Small slides and caving in along sand or gravel banks. Large bells ring. Concrete irrigation ditches damaged. 0.25 0.30g.
IX.
Steering of cars affected. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse. Some damage to masonry B; none to masonry A. Fall of stucco and some masonry walls.
Twisting. fall of chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, towers, elevated tanks. Frame houses moved on foundations if not bolted down; loose panel walls
thrown out. Decayed piling broken off. Branches broken from trees. Changes in flow or temperature of springs or wells. Cracks in wet ground and on steep
slopes. 0.50 0.55g.
X.
General panic. Masonry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes with complete collapse; masonry B seriously damaged. General damage to
foundations. Frame structures, if not bolted. shifted off foundations. Frames racked. Serious damage to reservoirs. Underground pipes broken. Conspicuous
cracks in ground. In alluviated areas sand and mud ejected, earthquake fountains, sand craters. Greater than 0.60g.
XI.
Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations. Some well-built wooden structures and bridges destroyed. Serious damage to dams,
dikes, embankments. Large landslides. Water thrown on banks of canals, rivers, lakes, etc. Sand and mud shifted horizontally on beaches and flat land.
Rails bent slightly.
XII.
XIII.
Damage nearly total. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
Masonry A. Good workmanship, mortar, and design; reinforced especially laterally, and bound
together by using steel, concrete, etc.; designed to resist lateral forces.
Masonry B. Good workmanship and mortar; reinforced. but not designed in detail to resist
lateral forces.
Masonry C. Ordinary workmanship and mortar, no extreme weaknesses like failing to tie at
corners, but neither reinforced nor designed against horizontal forces.
Masonry D. Weak materials, such as adobe; poor mortar; low standards of workmanship; weak
horizontally.
The Mercalli
intensity scale is also
useful in predicting
what might happen
given a scenario
earthquake. Since
ground conditions
and building types are
known for a given
location, given an
earthquake of a
certain magnitude, it
is possible to
determine the
Mercalli intensities at
that location.
As mentioned, it is
possible to relate
earthquake intensity to the
maximum amount of
ground acceleration (peak
ground acceleration, or
PGA) that is measured
with a special seismograph
called a strong-motion
accelerograph. This is
shown on the previous
MMI scale. Acceleration
is measured as a
percentage of the Earths
gravity. A vertical
acceleration of 1 g would
be just enough to lift you
(or anything else) off the
ground. Obviously this
would have a major impact
on damage done by an
earthquake at a given site.
Intensity map for the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Note that damage
is strongly related to both PGA and PGV at the bottom of the map.
E
E
C
C
C
C
E
E
C = Compression
E = Extension
Areas in compression
Areas in extension
Fault plane
Strike-Slip Fault
Right-lateral
Left-lateral
Thrust Fault
Normal Fault
Hints:
Records a compression
everywhere
Records an extension
everywhere
Aftershocks
Aftershock zones can be defined in two different ways...
An aftershock is actually just a normal earthquake in every
physical detail. Out of context, there is no way to tell
the difference between any arbitrary earthquake and an
"aftershock". The only real difference between the two
is that an aftershock follows closely in the wake of a
larger earthquake, and in roughly the same location as
its predecessor. That larger, initial earthquake is usually
referred to as the "mainshock".
More specifically, there are two guidelines for labelling an
earthquake as an aftershock. First, it must occur within
an "aftershock zone." This is sometimes defined as
within one fault-rupture length of the mainshock
rupture surface, or alternatively, within an area defined
by seismologists based upon early aftershock activity.
Second, it must occur within that designated area -- the
"aftershock zone" -- before the seismicity rate in that
area returns to its "background", meaning premainshock, level. If an earthquake meets these two
criteria, seismologists consider it an "aftershock."