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Chapter Learning
outcome
At the end of the chapter the student will be
able to:
1. Analyze vapor power cycles in which the working
fluid is alternately vaporized and condensed.
2. Analyze power generation coupled with process
heating called cogeneration.
3. Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor
power cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
4. Analyze the reheat regenerative vapor power cycles.
5. Analyze power cycles that consist of two separate
2
Chapter Outline
The Carnot Cycle
The Rankine Cycle
Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from
Idealized Ones
The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
Types of Feed-Water Heaters
Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles
Cogeneration
Combined GasVapor Power Cycles
Introduction
In this chapter, we consider vapor power cycles in
which the working fluid is alternatively vaporized
and condensed
Steam is the most common working fluid used in
vapor power cycles because of its many desirable
characteristics, such as low cost, availability, and
high enthalpy of vaporization
Steam power plants are commonly referred to as
coal plants, nuclear plants, or natural gas
plants, depending on the type of fuel used to
supply heat to the steam
1.Limited
maximum
temperature
Limiting the heat transfer
process to two-phase systems,
which makes isothermal heat
transfer
possible,
severely
limits
the
maximum
temperature that can be used
in the cycle (E.g. for water the
critical temperature is 374 oC)
Limiting
the
maximum
temperature in the cycle limits
the thermal efficiency
An attempt to increase the
maximum temperature will
involve heat transfer to the
Cont
2.High moisture Content in
Turbine
The quality of the steam
decreases during the
isentropic expansion in the
turbine (process 23)
The impingement of liquid
droplets on the turbine
blades causes erosion and is
a major source of wear
Cont
3.Compression of liquid-vapor
mixture
The isentropic compression
(process 41) involves the
compression of a liquid-vapor
mixture to a saturated liquid
It is not easy to control the
condensation process so
precisely as to end with the
desired quality at state 4
It is not practical to design a
compressor that will handle
two phases
Cont
Alternative Carnot
Vapor Cycle
Some of these issues can
be eliminated by
executing the Carnot
cycle in a different way,
for example as shown to
the right
This cycle, however,
presents other problems
including,
Isentropic
compression to
10
Cont
Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities and consists of the following four
processes
12 Isentropic compression in a pump
23 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
34 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
41 Constant pressure heat rejection in a
condenser
11
Cont
Thermodynamic Analysis
All four components associated with the Rankine
cycle (pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser) are
steady-flow devices
The kinetic and potential energy changes of the
steam are usually small relative to the work and
heat transfer terms and are therefore usually
neglected
Cont
Pump
The pump work is obtained from the conservation
of mass and energy for steady-flow but neglecting
potential and kinetic energy changes and
assuming the pump is adiabatic
m m and
m reversible.
1
m 1h1 W pump m 2 h2
W pump m (h2 h1 )
Since the pumping process involves an
incompressible liquid, state 2 is in the
compressed liquid region, we use a second
method to find the pump work or the h across
the pump.
13
Cont
v v1 const .
h2 h1 v1 ( P2 P1 )
wpump, in h2 h1
Where h1
wpump, in v P2 P1
h f @ P1
v v1 v f @ P1
14
Cont
Boiler
To find the heat supplied in the boiler, we apply
the steady-flow conservation of mass and energy
to the boiler. If we neglect the potential and
kinetic energies, and note that no work is done on
the steam in the boiler, then
m 2 m 3 m
m 2 h2 Q in m 3h3
Q in m (h3 h2 )
qin h3 h2
15
Cont
Turbine
The turbine work is obtained from the application of
the conservation of mass and energy for steady flow.
We assume the process is adiabatic and reversible and
neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.
m 3 m 4 m
m 3h3 W turb m 4 h4
W turb m (h3 h4 )
wturb, out h3 h4
Condenser
qout h4 h1
16
Cont
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is
determined from
w
th
net
qin
qout
th 1
qin
The energy
entire
wbalance
q for
qthe
w cycle gives
w
net
in
out
turb, out
pump, in
17
3
T [C]
300
200
100
0
0
10 kPa
2
4
1
2
s [kJ/kg-K]
10
12
18
Cont
Pump
W pump
m
v1 ( P2 P1 )
kJ
h
191.81
1
f
kg
P1 10 kPa
Sat. liquid
m3
v v f 0.00101
1
kg
w pump v1 ( P2 P1 )
m3
kJ
0.00101 (6000 10) kPa 3
kg
m kPa
kJ
6.05
kg
19
Cont
Boiler
P3 6000 kPa
o
T3 350 C
kJ
h3 3043.9
kg
kJ
s3 6.3357
kg K
20
Cont
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
Turbine
kg K
; sg 8.1488
kg K
is s4 s f ?
is s f s4 sg ?
is sg s4 ?
21
Cont
s4 s f x4 s fg
x4
s4 s f
s fg
6.3357 0.6492
0.758
7.4996
h4 h f x4 h fg
kJ
kJ
0.758(2392.1)
kg
kg
kJ
2005.0
kg
191.81
22
Cont
kJ
wnet
kg
th
kJ
qin
2845.1
kg
0.363 or 36.3%
1032.8
23
24
25
Cont
Friction
Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler,
the condenser, and the piping between the various
components
Due to friction
1. Steam leaves the
boiler at a lower
pressure
2. Pressure at the
turbine inlet is lower
than that at the boiler
exit
3. Due to these pressure
drops, the water must
be pumped to a
26
Cont
Heat Loss
Heat loss occurs from the steam to the
surroundings as the steam flows through the
various components
To maintain the same work output, more heat
needs to be transferred to the steam in the
boiler to compensate for the heat losses
27
Cont
Irreversibilities in Pump and Turbine
Pumps require greater work input and turbines
produce
a
smaller
work
output
due
to
irreversibilities
These deviations between actual and ideal pumps
and turbines can be accounted for by utilizing
isentropic efficiencies
Pump:
ws h2 s h1
P
wa h2 a h1
Turbine:
wa h3 h4 a
T
ws h3 h4 s
28
Cont
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (lowers
Tlow, av)
Steam exits as a saturated mixture in the
condenser at the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure inside the
condenser
Lowering the operating pressure of the
condenser
automatically
lowers
the
temperature of the steam, and therefore the
temperature at which heat is rejected
30
Cont
Superheating the Steam to High
Temperatures
(increases Thigh, av)
The average temperature at which heat is added to
the steam can be increased without increasing the
boiler pressure by superheating the steam to higher
temperatures
The shaded area represents the increase in net work
The overall effect is an increase in thermal
efficiency, since
Thigh, av increases
31
Cont
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (increases
Thigh, av)
Increasing the operating pressure of the boiler
raises the temperature at which the boiling
takes place
The adjustment raises the average temperature
at which heat is added and thus raises the
thermal efficiency of the cycle
At a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle
shifts to the left and the moisture content of
the steam at the turbine exit increases
32
33
Cont
34
Cont
Isentropic quality and h4s at the turbine exit are,
35
Cont
b) Thermal Efficiency of the cycle,
The amount of heat transferred at the boiler, the amount of
heat removed at the condenser and the net work of the
cycle are,
36
37
38
Cont
Rankine Cycle with Reheat
Component Process First Law Result
Boiler
Const. P
qin = (h3 - h2) + (h5 - h4)
Turbine
Isentropic wout = (h3 - h4) + (h5 - h6)
Condenser
Const. P
qout = (h6 - h1)
Pump
Isentropic win = (h2 - h1) = v1(P2 - P1)
(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 )
h6 h1
1
(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 )
39
Cont
q61 q23
heat input
qin
Rankine
w / reheat
h1 h6 h3 h2
40
41
Cont
a) The reheat pressure is determined from the
requirement that the
entropies at states 5 and 6 be the same:
Cont
b) To determine the thermal efficiency, we need to know
the enthalpies at all other states:
43
Cont
Thus
and
44
Example 7-6
Compare the thermal efficiency and turbine-exit quality
at the condenser pressure for a simple Rankine cycle
and the reheat cycle when the boiler pressure is 4
MPa, the boiler exit temperature is 400oC, and the
condenser pressure is 10 kPa. The reheat takes place
at 0.4 MPa and the steam leaves the reheater at 400oC.
th
xturb exit
No Reheat 35.3%
With Reheat 35.9%
0.8159
0.9664
45
Cont
This steam from the turbine is sent to a device where
the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a
regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH) to
preheat the condensate before entering the boiler.
This approach increases the average temperature at
which heat is added in the boiler. However, this
reduces the mass of steam expanding in the lowerpressure stages of the turbine, and, thus, the total
Regeneration improves not only the cycle efficiency,
work done by the turbine. The work that is done is
but also provides a convenient means of deaerating
done more efficiently.
the feedwater (removing the air that leaks in at the
condenser) to prevent corrosion in the boiler and it
helps also to control the large volume flow rate of the
steam at the final stages of the turbine (due to the
large specific volumes at low pressures).
47
Cont
48
Cont
Open Feedwater Heater
Cont
ssure
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in
steam power plants is the closed feedwater heater.
In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is
heated to the exit temperature of the extracted steam,
which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid
at the extraction pressure.
The schematic diagram of a steam power plant with one closed
feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in
the figure below.
50
Cont
Closed Feedwater Heater
Cont
Cycle with a closed feedwater heater with steam
trap to condenser
52
Let y= m6/m5 be the fraction of mass extracted from the turbine for
the feedwater heater.
m in m out
m 6 m 2 m 3 m 5
m 2 m 5 m 6 m 5 (1 y )
53
Cont
Conservation of energy for the open feedwater
heater:
E in E out
m 6h6 m 2 h2 m 3h3
ym 5h6 (1 y )m 5h2 m 5h3
y
h3 h2
h6 h2
54
Cont
Where:
56
Cont
The important properties of water for this cycle are
shown
Statesbelow.
with selected properties
Selected saturation
properties
Stat
e
P
kPa
T
C
h
kJ/kg
s
kJ/kgK
P
kPa
Tsat
C
vf
3
/kg
m
hf
kJ/kg
10
10
45.81 0.0010
1
191.8
500
500
151.8 0.0010
3
9
640.1
500
300
0
300
0
300
0
50 3457.2 7.2359
0
500
2942.6 7.2359
10
2292.7 7.2359
57
Cont
kJ
h h
kg
y 3 2
0.163
kJ
h6 h2 (2942.6 192.3)
kg
(640.1 192.3)
58
Cont
The fraction of mass extracted from the turbine for the
open feedwater heater is obtained from the energy
balance on the open feedwater heater, as shown above.
This means that for each kg of steam entering the
turbine, 0.163 kg is extracted for the feedwater heater.
The work for pump 2 is calculated from
w pump 2 v3 ( P4 P3 )
m3
kJ
0.00109
(3000 500) kPa 3
kg
m kPa
kJ
2.7
kg
Cont
Eout Ein
h4 wpump 2 h3
kJ
kJ
640.1
kg
kg
kJ
642.8
kg
2.7
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
60
Cont
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
61
Cont
transfer per unit mass entering the turbine at the high pressure, state
qin h5 h4
kJ
kJ
(3457.2 642.8)
2814.4
kg
kg
kJ
w
kg
th net
kJ
qin
2814.4
kg
or 37.5%
If these data were used for a0.375
Rankine
cycle with no regeneration,
then th = 35.6 percent. Thus, the one open feedwater heater
operating at 0.5 MPa increased the thermal efficiency by 5.3
percent. However, note that the mass flowing through the lowerpressure turbine stages has been reduced by the amount
extracted for the feedwater and the net work output for the
regenerative cycle is about 10 percent lower than the standard
Rankine cycle based on a unit of mass entering the turbine at 62the
1055.5
Cont
Below is a plot of cycle thermal efficiency versus the
open feedwater heater pressure. The feedwater heater
pressure that makes the cycle thermal efficiency a
maximum is about 400 kPa.
0.376
th vs OFWH Pressure
0.374
0.372
th
0.370
0.368
0.366
0.364
0.362
0.360
0
450
900
1350
Pofwh [kPa]
1800
2250
63
Cont
Below is a plot of cycle net work per unit mass flow at state 5 and
the fraction of mass y extracted for the feedwater heater versus
the open feedwater heater pressure. Clearly the net cycle work
decreases and the fraction of mass extracted increases with
increasing extraction pressure.
wnet and y vs OFWH Pressure
1200
0.25
0.23
1150
0.20
0.18
0.15
1050
0.13
1000
0.10
0.08
950
900
0
wnet kJ /kg
1100
0.05
450
900
1350
Pofwh [kPa]
1800
0.03
2250
64
Example 78
400
300
3000 kPa
233.9 C
815 kPa
200
136.2 kPa
100
45.81
45.85
C
0
0
10 kPa
2
s [kJ/kg-K]
10
12
65
Home
Consider Assignment:
an ideal steam regenerative Rankine cycle with
two feedwater
heaters, one closed
and one open.
Steam
Regenerative
Feedwater
Heater
enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 500 C and exhausts to the
condenser at 10 kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at
0.7 MPa for the closed feedwater heater and 0.3 MPa for the
open one. The extracted steam leaves the closed feedwater
heater and is subsequently throttled to the open feedwater
heater. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines, and using only the data presented in the
data tables given below determine
a) the fraction of steam leaving the boiler that is extracted at 0.3
MPa, z=0.1425
b) the fraction of steam leaving the boiler that is extracted at 0.7
MPa, y=0.06213
c) the heat transfer from the condenser per unit mass leaving the
boiler qout=1509 kJ/kg
d) the heat transfer to the boiler per unit mass leaving the boiler
qin=2677 kJ/kg
e) the mass flow rate of steam through the boiler for a net power
output of 250 MW
= 214.1 kg/s
66
Cont
67