Kinematics Notes

CHAPTER 2
Kinematics
2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited
Chapter 2 Kinematics
2.1
Distance and Displacement
2.2
Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
2.3
Graphs of Motion
2.4
Acceleration due to Gravity
2.1 Distance and Displacement
Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
understand and distinguish between scalar and
vector quantities.

Scalars and Vectors
Scalars and vectors are two types of physical
quantities.
Scalar quantities
Have only magnitude
Vector quantities
Have both magnitude and
direction
Examples include
Examples include distance,
displacement, velocity,
speed, mass, energy and time
acceleration and force
How is distance different

from displacement?

Distance versus Displacement
Distance
Total length covered by moving object,
along the path taken
Direction of motion does not matter
SI unit: metre (m)
What is the
distance
travelled from A
to B?
5 km
Distance travelled by car:

either 7 km
or 10 km
7 km
10 km
Displacement
Straight-line distance covered by
moving object, regardless of path
taken
Direction needs to be specified,
relative to a reference point
SI unit: metre (m)
B
N
What is the
displacement?
Displacement of car:
5 km (due east of A)

What if the object moves back to A along the same path? (i.e. A B
A)
Distance versus Displacement

Distance
Total length covered by moving
object, along the path taken
Direction of motion does not matter
SI unit: metre (m)
Displacement
Straight-line distance covered by
moving object, regardless of path
taken
Direction needs to be specified,
relative to reference point
SI unit: metre (m)
5 km 5 km
What is the new

distance?
Distance travelled by car:
either 14 km
or 20 km
7 km + 7 km
10 km + 10 km
What is the new

displacement?
Displacement of car:
0 km (back at A)

Question
1m
1m
(a) What is the

distance travelled
from A to F?
A
(b) What is the

displacement from
A to F?
What is negative
displacement?

Positive and Negative Displacement
For an object moving in a straight line, assign one
direction from the reference point as positive.
The opposite direction is then negative.
Positivenegative directions are assigned for convenience.
Example
C
2 km
5 km 5 km
Displacement of car
= 2 km (or 2 km due west of A)
2.1
2.2
2.3
Graphs of Motion
2.4
2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
Learning Outcomes
distinguish between speed and velocity;
find average speed using distance travelled ;
time taken
state what uniform acceleration is;
calculate the value of an acceleration using
change in velocity
;
time taken
interpret examples of non-uniform acceleration.
What is Speed?
Speed is the distance moved per unit time.
Speed = distance travelled

time taken
It is a scalar quantity (like distance).

SI unit: metre per second (m s1)
Speed = Average Speed?

The term speed that we use is usually the average
speed, which assumes that the object travels at the
same speed throughout the entire distance.
Average speed = total distance travelled
total time taken
In reality, the speed may change from moment to
moment, throughout the distance travelled.
The Triangle Method

This simple method will help you to remember the
relationship between speed (v), distance (d) and time (t).
d
v
The Triangle Method

d = vt
d
v
The Triangle Method

d = vt
d
v
v= d
t
The Triangle Method

d = vt
d
v
v= d
t
t
t= d
v

Worked Example
A bike travels at a constant speed of 10.0 m s1. It takes
2000 s to travel from Jurong to East Coast. Determine the
distance between the two locations.
Jurong
Solution
Speed v = 10 m s1
Time t = 2000 s
Distance d = vt
= (10 m s1)(2000 s)
= 20 000 m or 20 km
East Coast

Worked Example
Tom travels 105 km in 2.5 hours before stopping for a half-hour
lunch. He then continues another 55 km for an hour. What was
the average speed of his journey in
(a) km h1?
(b) m s1?
Solution
total distance
total time
= (105 + 55) km = 40 km h1
(2.5 + 0.5 + 1) h
(a) Average speed =
(b) 40 km h1 = 40 km
1h
3
= (40)(10 ) m = 11.1 m s1
(1)(60)(60) s

What is Velocity?
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

Velocity = displacement (linear distance)
time taken
It is a vector quantity (like displacement).

SI unit: metre per second (m s1)
URL
What is the
difference between
speed and velocity?

Remember displacement
is also a vector quantity?
Velocity as a Vector Quantity

Velocity has both magnitude and direction.
Velocity measures speed in a specified direction.
Constant speed in same direction = constant velocity
Constant speed, direction changed = velocity changed
Example
N
Speed : 5 m s1
Direction: East
Velocity : 5 m s1 east
Speed : 5 m s1
Direction: North
Velocity : 5 m s1 north
Average Velocity
It is the average rate of change of displacement
for any time interval.
Average velocity = total displacement
total time taken

Worked Example
A car takes half an hour to travel 7
km from A to B. What is its
(a) average speed in km h1?
(b) average velocity in km h1?
5 km
7 km
Solution
(a) Average speed
=
=
=
total distance travelled

total time taken
d
t
7 km
= 14 km h1
0.5 h
(b) Taking due east of point A as

positive, average velocity
=
=
=
total displacement
total time taken
s
t
5 km
= 10 km h1
0.5 h
(Part 1/3)

Worked Example
The car takes another half an hour
to move back to A along the same A
path. What is its
(a) new average speed?
(b) new average velocity?
5 km 5 km
7 km + 7 km
+
Solution
(a) Average speed
=
=
=
total distance travelled

total time taken
d
t
14 km
= 14 km h1
1h
(b) Taking due east of point A as

positive, average velocity
=
=
=
total displacement
total time taken
s
t
0 km
= 0 km h1
1h
(Part 2/3)

Worked Example
The car takes another 15 minutes to reach point C. What is
its average velocity?
C
2 km
5 km 5 km
Solution
Taking due east of point A as positive,
average velocity
total displacement
total time taken
= s
t
Remember, velocity
can be negative!
= 2 km
1.25 h
= 1.6 km h1
Can we have
negative speed too?
(Part 3/3)

Question
A truck makes a delivery trip from town A to town B
in 15 minutes, and then from town B to town C in
45 minutes. The distances between the towns are
shown on the map. Determine the average velocity
for the entire journey (from towns A to C).
A
30 km
B
50 km
40 km

What is Acceleration?
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Acceleration = change in velocity = v
time taken
It is a vector quantity (like displacement and velocity).

SI unit: metre per second per second (m s2)

What is Acceleration?
An object accelerates when its velocity changes.
Example
N
Speed
: 5 m s1
Direction: East
Change in speed
Change in direction
Speed
Speed
: 10 m s1
: 5 m s1
Change in speed and

direction
Direction: East
Direction: North
Speed
Direction: North
: 10 m s1

Acceleration versus Deceleration
Acceleration
Occurs when
Deceleration
Refers only to when
velocity decreases
velocity increases
(i.e. positive acceleration), Also called retardation
or
velocity decreases
(i.e. negative acceleration)

Uniform Acceleration
Uniform acceleration is the constant rate of change
of velocity.
Acceleration a = v u = v
tv tu
t
where u = initial velocity;
v = final velocity;
tu = time at which an object is at initial velocity u;
tv = time at which an object is at final velocity v;
v = change in velocity;
t = time interval between tu and tv.

Uniform Acceleration
Uniform acceleration occurs when the change (increase
or decrease) in velocity per unit time is the same.
Positive, uniform
acceleration
Velocity
increases at
constant rate
Negative, uniform
acceleration
Velocity
decreases at
constant rate
+20 m s1
0 m s1
+20 m s1
40 m s1
20 m s1
Velocity
Change
+20 m s1
60 m s1
Velocity
Time/s
20 m s1
60 m s1
20 m s1
40 m s1
Velocity
Change
20 m s1
20 m s1
0 m s1
Velocity
Time/s

Worked Example
The velocity of a car changes from 15 m s1 to 10 m s1
in 1.2 s. Determine its acceleration.
Solution
Acceleration a = v
t
vu
=
tv t u
=
= 4.2 m s2
(10 15) m s1
1.2 s
The car is slowing down, so
acceleration should be negative.

Worked Example
A stationary truck accelerates with an acceleration of
1 m s2 for 15 seconds. Determine the final velocity.
Solution
Given: initial velocity u = 0 m s1
acceleration a = 1 m s2
time taken t = 15 s
a = v = v u
t
t
v = at + u
= (1 m s2)(15 s) + 0 m s1
= 15 m s1

Non-uniform Acceleration
Non-uniform acceleration occurs when the change (increase
or decrease) in velocity per unit time is not the same.
+30 m s1
0 m s1
+20 m s1
30 m s1
20 m s1
60 m s1
50 m s1
10 m s1
40 m s1
Velocity
Change
+10 m s1
60 m s1
Velocity
Change
30 m s1
30 m s1
Velocity
Time/
s
0 m s1
Velocity
Time/
s

Question
Describe the motion of the car below, in terms of its
speed and acceleration.
+30 m s1
10 m s1
20 m s1
40 m s1
Velocity
Change
+40 m s1
20 m s1
60 m s1
Velocity
Time/
s
2.1
2.2
2.3
Graphs of Motion
2.4
2.3 Graphs of Motion

Learning Outcomes
plot and interpret a displacementtime graph;
plot and interpret a velocitytime graph;
deduce information about motion from the shape of a
displacementtime graph;
deduce information about motion from the shape of a
velocitytime graph;
determine displacement by calculating the area under
a velocitytime graph.

DisplacementTime Graphs
(Object at Rest)
Displacement/m
Time/s
Displacement/m
75
75
75
75
75
75
Velocity/m s1
s
Starting
point O
Graph is a horizontal line (zero gradient)

Displacement is constant for every second
Time/s

(Object at Uniform (Constant) Velocity)
Displacement/m
Time/s
Displacement/m
Velocity/m s
25
50
75
100
125
25
25
25
25
25
Time/s
Graph is a straight line with constant gradient

Displacement increases by 25 m every second

(Object at Increasing (Non-uniform) Velocity)
Displacement/m
Time/s
Displacement/m
Velocity/m s
20
45
80
125
10
15
20
25
Time/s
Graph has an increasing gradient

Velocity increases

(Object at Decreasing (Non-uniform) Velocity)
Displacement/m
Displacement/m
45
80
105
120
125
45
40
35
30
25
Velocity/m s1
Time/s
Time/s
Graph has a decreasing gradient

Velocity decreases

Velocity is given by the gradient of a
displacementtime graph.
Displacement/m
s
t
Time/s

(Instantaneous Velocity of Object)
Displacement/m
Instantaneous velocity
t2
d1
6
d2
10 11
12
t1
At t = 5 s, instantaneous velocity is
s1
(100 0) m
1
=
=
20
m
s
t1
(7.5 2.5) s
describes how fast an

object is at a particular
time;
equals the gradient of the

Time/s tangent, at a specific time
on the displacementtime
graph.
At t = 10 s, instantaneous velocity is
s2
= (290 125) m = 41.25 m s1
t2
(12 8) s

(Instantaneous Velocity versus Average Velocity)
Displacement/m
(220,10.3)
(80,6.7)
At a specific
time
Time/s
0
Instantaneous velocity at t = 8.5 s is

s
t
=
(220 80) m
(10.3 6.7) s
38.89 m s1
8 8.5 9
10 11
12
For a time
interval
Average velocity after t = 8.5 s is

<v> = total displacement
total time taken
150 m
=
= 17.65 m s1
8.5 s

(Deducing the Motion of an Object)
For a car moving on straight road, assign
- its reference point: at X (0 m);

- its direction: taking due east of X as
positive.
The gradient of the tangent at each point
on graph gives the instantaneous velocity.
Displacement/m
- Zero gradient = zero velocity (stationary)

- Positive gradient = displacement and
velocity towards the right
- Negative gradient = displacement and
velocity towards the left
Time/s

(Deducing the Motion of an Object)
Region
Characteristics
Horizontal straight
line (Zero
(zero gradient)
Stationary at 40 m to
the right of X
Positive gradient
gradient,
straight line
Straight
Moving right
east (positive
direction away from X)
with uniform velocity
Tangent with zero

gradient
Zero instantaneous
velocity (stationary) at
100 m to the right of X
C
C
C to
to
F
F
Region with
with
Region
negative gradient
gradient
negative
D,
D, E,
E,
F
F
G
G
Gradient decreases
Gradient
decreases
from
D to E from
to F D
to E to F
Horizontal straight
Horizontal straight
line
line
Deduction
Moving left
west(negative
(negative
Moving
direction towards
towards X)
X)
direction
with changing velocity
Velocity decreasing
decreasing
Velocity
from D
D to
to E
E to
to F
F
from
the right
right of
of X
X
the
Displacement/m
C
B
D
E
G
Time/s
N
X
0
20
40
60
Displacement/m
80
100

VelocityTime Graphs
(Object at Rest)
Time/s
Displacement/m
20
20
20
20
20
20
Velocity/m s1
Displacement/m
Time/s
Velocity/m s1
The displacementtime graph shows that

the object is at rest, 20 m from the starting
point, from t = 0 s to t = 5 s.
The velocitytime graph shows
a horizontal, straight line on the x-axis;
zero acceleration.
Time/s

VelocityTime Graphs
(Object at Uniform Velocity)
Time/s
Displacement/m
10
20
30
40
50
Velocity/m s1
10
10
10
10
10
10
Displacement/m
Time/s
Velocity/m s1
The displacementtime graph shows an

object moving at uniform velocity.
a horizontal, straight line;
zero acceleration.
Time/s

VelocityTime Graphs
(Uniform Acceleration)
Time/s
Displacement/m
20
45
80
125
Velocity/m s1
10
20
30
40
50
Displacement/m
Time/s
Velocity/m s1

object moving with increasing velocity.
that velocity increases by 10 m s1 every
second;
a positive and constant gradient
(constant acceleration).
Time/s

VelocityTime Graphs
(Uniform Deceleration)
Time/s
Displacement/m
45
80
105
120
125
Velocity/m s1
50
40
30
20
10

object moving with decreasing velocity.
Displacement/m
Time/s
Velocity/m s1

that velocity decreases by 10 m s1
every second;
a negative and constant gradient
(constant deceleration).
Time/s

VelocityTime Graphs
(Increasing Acceleration)
Time/s
Velocity/m s1
18
32
50
Velocity/m s1

that the increase in velocity increases
with time;
a positive and increasing gradient;
increasing acceleration.
Time/s

VelocityTime Graphs
(Decreasing Acceleration)
Time/s
Velocity/m s1
18
32
42
48
50
Velocity/m s1

that the increase in velocity decreases
with time;
a positive and decreasing gradient;
decreasing acceleration.
Time/s

VelocityTime Graphs
(Instantaneous Acceleration)
Velocity/m s1
Instantaneous acceleration
at t = 3 s is
v = (30 5) m s1
t
(4 2) s
(4,30)
v
t
(2,5)
= 12.5 m s2
Time/s

Velocity/m s1
Displacement
= area under graph
= 1 (5 s)(50 m s1)
2
= 125 m
VelocityTime Graphs
(Area under Graph)
To find the displacement, calculate
the area under a velocitytime graph
over the time period.
C
Time/s
Velocity/m s1
Velocity/m s1
Displacement
= area under graph
= (0 m s1)(5 s)
=0m
Velocity/m s1
Displacement
= area under graph
= (10 m s1)(5 s)
= 50 m
Displacement
= area under graph
= 1 (5 s)(50 m s1)
2
= 125 m
D
A
Time/s
Time/s
Time/s

SpeedTime Graphs versus VelocityTime Graphs
B
Speed/m s1
A
A1
B
t1
t = t1
v=0
Velocity/m s1
u
h
A2
t2
Time/s
+
A
Total distance travelled

= total area under graph
= A1 + A2
=h+h
= 2h
t=0
v=u
t = t2
v = u
Ball tossed vertically

upwards
Falls freely, negligible air
resistance
Assign upward direction
from ground as positive
A
A3
B
t1
t2
A4
Time/s
Total displacement
= total area under graph
= A3 + A4
= h + (h)
=0
2.1
2.2
2.3
Graphs of Motion
2.4
2.4 Acceleration due to Gravity
Learning Outcomes
state that the acceleration of free fall near to the
Earths surface is approximately 10 m s2;
describe the motion of free-falling bodies with and
without air resistance;
apply the term terminal velocity when describing
the motion of falling bodies.

If we drop a heavy object and a light object
from the same height at the same time,
which will hit the ground first?
Heavy object first?
Both at the same time?

Contrary to the widely accepted claim made by
Aristotle that a heavier object falls faster than a
lighter object,
I discovered that all objects, regardless of mass or
size, fall at the same acceleration due to the Earths
gravity.
Galileos Discovery
Acceleration due to gravity g is a constant.

For objects close to the Earths surface,
g = 9.8 m s2.
g is approximately 10 m s2.
Galileo Galilei
(15641642)

Objects Falling without Air Resistance
To put Galileos discovery to the test, watch
these two videos:
URL 1
URL 2

Free fall happens only in vacuum (no air resistance).
The only force acting on a free-falling object is its weight.
The direction of force and motion is downward (towards
the centre of the Earth).
Objects falling without air resistance experience a
constant increase in velocity under Earths gravity.
Acceleration due to gravity g is a constant.
The velocitytime graph has a constant gradient.
Acceleration is not dependent on the mass or size of an
object.

constant gradient = constant
acceleration
v/m s1
40
30
20
10
0
0s
1s
2s
3s
4s
t/s
Time
interval
At rest
Wh
Wf
Wf
10 m s1
Wf 20 m s1
Wf
Wf
30 m s1
40 m s1
Forces
involved
Type of motion
Wh
0s
to
1s
Velocity increases:
Wf (feather)
zero to 10 m s1
Wh (hammer) v = 10 m s1
Wh
1s
to
2s
Velocity increases:
Wf (feather)
10 to 20 m s1
Wh
2s
to
3s
Velocity increases:
Wf (feather)
20 to 30 m s1
Wh
3s
to
4s
Velocity increases:
Wf (feather)
30 to 40 m s1
Acceleration
10 m s2
10 m s2
(constant
acceleration)
10 m s2
(constant
acceleration)
10 m s2
(constant
acceleration)

Activity (Group)
Objective
Observe two objects falling without air resistance.
(The two objects should be dropped from the same
height, at the same time, and they should reach the
ground at the same time.)
Instructions
1.Choose two objects.
2.Drop them from the same height and at the same
time.
3.Observe as the objects hit the ground.

Objects Falling with Air Resistance
Air resistance
is a frictional force;
is due to the object moving through the atmosphere;
always opposes the motion of the moving object.

Objects Falling with Air Resistance
Air resistance increases with the
speed of the object;
surface area (or size) of the object;
density of air.
Can you think of objects that will experience high

air resistance when falling? What characteristic(s)
of these objects increase their air resistance?

Terminal
velocity
v/m s1
v4 = v3
v2
v1
A1
0
0s
1s
Object Falling with Air Resistance
A4
A3
A2
W
R1
W
At rest
v1
R2
2s
W
v2
R3
W
3s
R4
v3
4s
t/s
v4
Time
interval
Forces
involved
0s
to
1s
W > R1
1s
to
2s
W > R2 > R1
2s
to
3s
3s
to
4s
Type of motion
Velocity increases:
zero to v1
v = v1 0
Velocity increases:
v1 to v2
v smaller:
(v2 v1) > (v1 0)
W > R3 > R 2
Velocity increases:
v2 to v3
v smaller:
(v3 v2) > (v2 v1)
W = R4 = R3
Velocity constant:
v4 = v3
= terminal velocity
v = 0
Displacement
Acceleration (area under
graph)
Yes
Yes
(but lower than
from 0 s to 1 s)
Yes
(but lower than
from 1 s to 2 s)
Zero
A1
A2 > A1
A3 > A2
A4 > A3
(slightly larger)

Terminal Velocity
When the air resistance acting against an object
equals its weight, the object travels at a constant
velocity known as terminal velocity.
If an object falls through a short distance, it may not
have time to reach terminal velocity before hitting
the ground.
Is the terminal velocity always the same?
How can we change it?

Question
A parachutist jumps from an aircraft and falls through the air.
After some time, the parachute opens. At which point do you
think the parachute opens?
Velocity/m s1
50
40
30
20
10
0
A
2
10 12 14 16 18
Time/s
Kinematics
Magnitud
e
Distance
(SI unit:
m)
Scalar
quantities
have
only
Speed
(SI unit: m
s1)
Vector
quantities
Displacem
ent
(SI
unit: m)
Speed =distance
time
taken
total distance
Average =
total time
speed
taken
Area under
velocitytime
graph
displacement
Velocity displacement
=
time taken
Gradient of displacementtime
graph
velocity
Velocity
(SI unit:
m s1)
have both
Magnitud
e
Direction
Accelerati
on
(SI
unit: m s2)
Acceleration = change in
velocity
time taken
Gradient of velocitytime
graph
acceleration
Acceleration due to gravity g
- Without air resistance,
object falls with constant
acceleration
- With air resistance, object
falls with decreasing
acceleration and may reach
terminal velocity
The URLs are valid as at 15 October 2012.
Acknowledgements
(slides 173) skydiver Joggiebotma | Dreamstime.com
(slide 62)
Galileo Galilei Justus Sustermans | Wikimedia
Commons | Public Domain

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CHAPTER 2

2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited

Distance and Displacement

Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Acceleration due to Gravity

2.1 Distance and Displacement

2.1 Distance and Displacement

How is distance different

2.1 Distance and Displacement

Distance travelled by car:

2.1 Distance and Displacement

Distance versus Displacement

What is the new

What is the new

2.1 Distance and Displacement

(a) What is the

(b) What is the

2.1 Distance and Displacement

Distance and Displacement

Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Acceleration due to Gravity

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Speed is the distance moved per unit time.

Speed = distance travelled

It is a scalar quantity (like distance).

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Speed = Average Speed?

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

The Triangle Method

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

The Triangle Method

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

The Triangle Method

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

The Triangle Method

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

(a) Average speed =

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

It is a vector quantity (like displacement).

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity as a Vector Quantity

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

total distance travelled

(b) Taking due east of point A as

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

total distance travelled

(b) Taking due east of point A as

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

It is a vector quantity (like displacement and velocity).

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Change in speed and

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration