Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Licence A)
Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of creating
current flow in a conductor by magnetism. This current flow can
be created in one of two
ways:
1. when the conductor is stationary in a changing magnetic
field
2. when the conductor is moving through a stationary magnetic
field
The manner in which electrons flow in a conductor is the
opposite to that which produces the force. In order to create
current flow, we require movement in to get electricity out. The
components required to create (or generate) electricity are:
1. closed conductor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=hajIIGHPeuU
2. magnetic field
Whenever
relative motion occurs between a magnetic field and
3.
relative movement.
a conductor acting at right angles to the field, an emf is induced
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or generated in the conductor.
the relationship:
where N is the number of turns and is the rate of change of flux.
The minus sign indicates that the polarity of the generated emf
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opposes the change.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH
48EMgKE
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DC generator
In contrast to the AC generator, in a DC generator the slip-rings
are replaced by a commutator shown in figure below. As shown,
the commutator is essentially a split ring which is also mounted
on but insulated from the rotating shaft. The brushes rub
against the commutator as shown above. The function of the
commutator is to convert the alternating current into a direct
current. This is done by the fact that when the rotating loop
passes through the vertical position and hence at the instant
that the current is about to change direction, the brushes make
contact with the other half of the split ring thereby keeping the
direction of the current unchanged. Note that a DC generator is
often referred to as a dynamo.
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Commutator arrangement
d.c.-generated output
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Type of
energy
Solar
Where it is from
Advantages
Disadvantages
Energy from
sunlight is captured
in solar panels and
converted into
electricity.
Potentially infinite
energy supply.
Single dwellings
can have own
electricity supply.
Manufacture and
implementation
of solar panels
can be costly.
Wind
Wind turbines
(modern windmills)
turn wind energy
into electricity.
Can be found
singularly, but
usually many
together in wind
farms.
Potentially infinite
energy supply.
Manufacture and
implementation
of wind farms can
be costly.
Some local
people object to
on-shore wind
farms, arguing
that it spoils the
countryside.
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Type of
energy
Tidal
Where it is from
Advantages
Disadvantages
The movement of
tides drives turbines.
A tidal barrage (a
kind of dam) is built
across estuaries,
forcing water through
gaps.
In future underwater
turbines may be
possible out at sea
and without dams.
Ideal for an
Construction of
island such as the barrage is very
UK.
costly.
Potential to
Only a few
generate a lot of estuaries are
energy.
suitable.
Tidal barrage
Opposed by
can double as a some
bridge, and help environmental
prevent flooding. groups as having
a negative
impact on
wildlife.
May reduce tidal
flow and impede
flow of sewage
out to sea.
Wave
The movement of
Ideal for an
seawater in and out of island country.
Construction can
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be costly.
Type of
Where it is from
energy
Geothermal In volcanic
regions it is
possible to use
the natural heat
of the earth.
Cold water is
pumped under
ground and
comes out as
steam.
Steam can be
used for heating
or to power
turbines creating
electricity.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Potentially infinite
energy supply.
Used successfully
in some countries,
such as New
Zealand and
Iceland.
Can be expensive
to set up and only
works in areas of
volcanic activity.
Geothermal and
volcanic activity
might calm down,
leaving power
stations redundant.
Dangerous
elements found
underground must
be disposed of
carefully.
Hydrological Energy
Creates water
or
harnessed from reserves as well as
Hydroelectri the movement of energy supplies.
c Power
water through
(HEP)
rivers, lakes and
Costly to build.
Can cause the
flooding of
surrounding
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communities and
Type of
energy
Where it is from
Advantages
Disadvantages
Biomass
Disadvantages
Wood
When burned it
gives off
atmospheric
pollutants,
including
greenhouse
gases.
If trees are not
replanted then
wood is a nonrenewable
resource.
Obtained from
felling trees,
burned to
generate heat
and light.
A cheap and
readily available
source of energy.
If the trees are
replaced, wood
burning can be a
long-term,
sustainable
energy source
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Silicon Lattice
Silicon atoms form covalent bonds and can crystallize into a
regular lattice. The illustration below is a simplified sketch; the
actual crystal structure of silicon is a diamond lattice. This
crystal is called an intrinsic semiconductor and can conduct
a small amount of current.
The main point here is that a silicon atom has four electrons
which it can share in covalent bonds with its neighbours
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PN-junction
Just after the two layers are joined together both sides are
electrically neutral but the p-type material has an abundance of
free holes and the n-type an abundance of electrons. Since the
concentration of free charges is high on both side a diffusion
current is set up (as shown by the heavy arrows) with
reference to the diagram holes diffuse from left to right and
electrons diffuse from right to left. This diffusion current is,
however, only of a temporary nature, since
at the junction excess charges tend to
accumulate excess electrons on the p-side
of the junction and excess holes on the
n-type of the junction. The result is that an
electric field is created which opposes any
further flow of current.
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PN-junction
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Charge Controller.
A charge controllers job is to charge the battery bank but not
allow it to become overcharged. Overcharging a battery bank
can result in damage to the battery bank as well as introduce a
safety hazard.
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Applications of PV panels:
PV panels have found widespread use as alternative pollution
free-sources of energy. The applications can be the classified as
either small scale or large scale. Normally one would classify a
small scale installation where the peak power is a few hundred
watts. Such installations are usually installed to power
pedestrian crossing lights, speed warning signs and garden or
porch lighting. In these installations the solar panels are small,
measuring less than 1m2 in area, as compactness and the
aesthetic aspect are a primary concern.
On the other hand large scale installations, with peak power of
several kW or tens of kW, require substantial footprint areas.
The smaller ones are found on domestic and residential
premises and comprise 8 or 10 panels each measuring 1.5 m 2 in
area with a total peak power of 3 to 5kW. Large commercial or
industrial premises normally have substantial roof area which is
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being utilised for PV installations. These installations may cover
2
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Types of Batteries
Primary Batteries
Primary batteries are non-rechargeable and disposable. The
electrochemical reactions in these batteries are non-reversible.
The materials in the electrodes are completely utilized and
therefore cannot regenerate electricity. Primary batteries are
often used when long periods of storage are required, as they
have a much lower discharge rate than secondary batteries.
Use of primary batteries is exemplified by smoke detectors,
flashlights, and most remote controls.
Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteriesare rechargeable. These batteries
undergo electrochemical reactions that can be readily reversed.
The chemical reactions that occur in secondary batteries are
reversible because the components that react are not
completely used up. Rechargeable batteries need an external
electrical source to recharge them after they have expended 64
Construction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=wwFrRymr4iE
Leclanch Cell
A electrolytic cell also known as a dry cell that uses a moist
paste rather than a liquid as an electrolyte. Dry cells with a zinc
cup for an anode, a carbon rod for a cathode, and a paste made
of powdered carbon, Ammonium chloride, Zinc Chloride, and
Manganese dioxide for an electrolyte.
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Leclanch Cell
The Leclanch Cell (carbon-zinc) cell is one of the oldest and
most widely used types of dry cells. The carbon in the battery is
in the form of a rod in the centre of the cell which acts as the
positive terminal.
The case is made from zinc and acts as the negative electrode.
The electrolyte for this type of cell is a chemical paste-like
mixture which is housed between the carbon electrode and the
zinc case. The cell is then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in
the paste from evaporating.
The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is durable and
very inexpensive to produce. It has a good shelf life.
Disadvantages are high internal resistance and limitation of 1.5
volts.
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Mercury Cell
Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell that is shaped
like a button, while the other is a cylindrical cell that looks like a
regular flashlight battery. Each cell produces about 1.35 volts.
These cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf life.
The mercury cell has the advantage of maintaining a fairly
constant output under varying load conditions. For this reason,
they are used in products such as electric watches, hearing aids,
cameras, and test instruments.
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Efficiency of a Lead
Acid Cell
output(discharge), Ah x 100%
ampere-hour efficiency =
input (charge), Ah
(around 85%, for good battery)
Ri
=R
REi3+R
+Ri5
i1+R
i2+
i4+E
E
=E
+E
+
+E
1
2
3
4
5
()
(V)
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E=E1=E2=E3
(V)
R
i=Ri1=Ri2=Ri3 ()
Ri
Ri =
3
()
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Disposal:
Disposal of batteries poses a problem since a battery is made of
a number of substances some of which may be toxic and
therefore unless careful processes are adopted during their
disposal great harm can result to the environment and
irreversible ecological damage occurs. It must be pointed that
certain substances, notably mercury, have been phased out and
are no longer present in batteries. In particular dry batteries
commonly used in domestic gadgets (predominantly remote
controls and clocks) are quite safe to be disposed with other
trash. Nevertheless secondary batteries, which are also
extensively used like NiCad and NiMH, contain substances that
are toxic and therefore proper disposal is still an important
subject. In Malta recognised companies exist that are authorised
to collect and dispose of spent batteries.
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Conductors
Most metals are considered to be good conductors of electrical
current. Copper is just one of the more popular materials that is
used for conductors.
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Insulators
Insulators are materials that have just the opposite effect on the
flow of electrons. They do not let electrons flow very easily from
one atom to another. Insulators are materials whose atoms have
tightly bound electrons. These electrons are not free to roam
around and be shared by neighbouring atoms.
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chloride ion
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Electroplating of metals
Electroplating is a process whereby a thin coating of desired
material is applied on a required material. This is mostly done on
stainless steel to prevent rusting, or on some decorative items,
so that they look attractive. On stainless steel, generally nickelchromium plating is done. On decorative items, such as spoons,
plates, jewellery items, silver, gold or other plating is done.
Electroplating is cheap and cost effective. It enhances the life of
the object and makes it look better in appearance.
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Gaseous conductors:
Historically discharge tubes were made containing gases at very
low pressures (10-2 or 10-3 atm). The tube, inside which the gas
in contained, contains an electrode at each of its two ends. The
two electrodes are normally heated (hot cathode) so that they
emit electrons by the thermionic effect. The liberated electrons
are accelerate from one electrode to the other and in the
process collide with the gas atoms. Such collisions are inelastic
and therefore energy is conveyed to the gas atoms. This
absorbed energy causes an electron in the outer orbits of the
atom to jump to a higher orbit (higher energy level). This,
however, is normally a unstable state of affairs for the atom and
the electron reverts back to its lower orbit (lower energy level) in
the process emitting the extra energy. This energy is normally
what constitutes the glow or light emitted by the gas. It is
important to point out that most the energy emitted by gas lies
in the UV region which is not visible.
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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Observe all rules for safety when taking equipment out of
service. Block out disconnect switches. Test for foreign or
induced voltages. Apply workmens grounds. Remember that
when working around high voltage equipment there is always a
possibility of voltages being induced in apparatus under test or
lines to which it is connected, because of proximity to energized
high voltage equipment. Therefore, rather than removing a
workmens ground in order to make a test, it is more advisable
to disconnect the apparatus, such as a transformer or circuit
breaker, from the exposed bus or line, leaving the latter
grounded. Use rubber gloves when connecting the test leads to
the apparatus and while operating the Megger instrument.
Apparatus Under Test Must Not Be Live!
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Applications of insulators:
Theres a multitude of materials that can be used as insulators.
The choice depends on a number of factors, like:
Resistivity, breakdown voltage, tensile strength and
operating temperature.
Rigidity or flexibility: a cable requires a flexible insulator
while a household socket required a rigid insulator.
Cost.
Availability and manufacturability.
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PVC:
Polyvinylchloride or PVC is perhaps the most common insulating
material. Most wiring is insulated with PVC including house
wiring. Irradiated PVC has superior strength and resistance to
heat. PVC tapes and tubing are also quite common. Electrical
and electronic housings are commonly moulded from PVC.
CERAMIC:
Ceramics are used to fabricate insulators, components, and
circuit boards. The good electrical insulating properties are
complemented by the high thermal conductivity.
EPOXY/FIBERGLASS:
This laminate is quite common due to its superior strength and
excellent electrical properties even in humid environment. Most
modern circuit boards are made from a grade of
epoxy/fiberglass. (Grades include G10/FR4 and G11/FR5
extended temperature grade.)
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NYLON:
Nylon has good resistance to abrasion, chemicals, and high
voltages and is often used to manufacture electro-mechanical
components. Nylon is extruded and cast and is filled with a
variety of other materials to improve weathering, impact
resistance, coefficient of friction, and stiffness. The drawback of
Nylon is that it is very susceptible to moisture absorption.
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Electronics systems:
All electronic appliances and instruments widely contain PCB
(printed circuit boards) having different electronics components
on them. PCBs are manufactured of epoxy plastic and
fiberglass. All electronics components are fixed on the insulated
PCB board. InSCR(semiconductor rectifiers), transistors and
integrated circuits, the silicon material is used as a conductive
material and can be converted into insulators using a heat and
oxygen process.
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Power systems:
Transformer oil is widely used as an insulator to prevent arcing
in transformers, stabilizers, circuit breakers, etc. The insulating
oil can withstand insulating properties up to a specified electrical
breakdown voltage. Vacuum, gas (sulphur hexafluoride), and
ceramic or glass wire are other methods of insulation in high
voltage systems. Small transformers, power generators, and
electrical motors contain insulation on the wire coils by the
means of polymer varnish. Fiberglass insulating tape is also used
as a winding coil separator.
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Iron loss: The iron loss is the term that refers to the energy
loss inside a magnetic material due to:
Hysteresis: The hysteresis loop represents energy loss in the
material since if a piece of magnetic material is exposed to a
magnetic field which is cyclic (i.e. increases in one direction,
decreases to zero and then increases in the opposite direction,
and this cycle is repeated continuously) then energy is
absorbed by the material from the magnetic field due to the
hysteresis effect. This energy absorption manifests itself as
heat.
Eddy current: Another cause of iron loss is that due to the
eddy currents that are set up inside the magnetic material due
to the cyclic magnetic field. These eddy currents absorb energy
from the magnetic field since they generate heat within the
magnetic material (due to normal I2R loss).
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